Metal Apps & Processing

Metal Apps & Processing
Engineering 45 Metal Apps & Processing Bruce Mayer, PE Registered Electrical & Mechanical Engineer

Learning Goals How Metal Alloys Are Classified Uses for Metal Alloys
Understand Common Metal Fabrication Processes (Techniques) How properties can VARY Throughout a SINGLE Piece Of Material e.g.; as a Result of Quenching How to modify Properties by Post-Processing Heat Treatment

Metals Family Tree (taxonomy)
Fe 3 C cementite Metal Alloys Steels Ferrous Nonferrous Cast Irons Cu A Mg Ti <1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 6 00 4 1 2 5 6.7 L g austenite +L +Fe a ferrite + L+Fe d (Fe) o , wt% C Eutectic: Eutectoid: 0.77 4.30 727°C 1148°C T(°C) microstructure: ferrite, graphite Metals Family Tree (taxonomy)

Ferrous v. NonFerrous Defined
A Metal Alloy/Compound is Designated as FERROUS if it Contains 50+% Iron EVERY Other Metal is NONFerrous Class Question: Rank these Metals in Terms of WorldWide Production Steel Zinc Aluminum Copper

Global Metal Production - 2001
106 Tonnes Zinc 7 Copper 12 Aluminum 21 Steel (Ferrous) 788 Metric Tonnes

Why Ferrous Dominates Ore is cheap and abundant
Processing techniques are economical (extraction, refining, alloying, fabrication) High strength Very versatile metallurgy – a wide range of mechanical and physical properties can be achieved, and these can be tailored to the application

Ferrous Disadvantages
Low corrosion resistance – Oxidizes (rusts) easily use e.g. titanium, brass instead High Density: 7900 kg/m3 (0.29 lb/in3) use e.g. aluminum, magnesium High temperature strength could be better use nickel instead

BASIC DISTINCTION BASIC DISTINCTION between FERROUS and NONferrous alloys: Ferrous metals are ‘all-purpose’ alloys Non-ferrous metals used for niche applications, where properties of ferrous metals are inadequate

STEELS Low Alloy High Alloy low carbon med carbon high carbon
<0.25wt%C wt%C wt%C plain HSLA heat treatable tool austentitic stainless Name Additions none Cr,V Ni, Mo Cr, Ni Mo Cr, V, Mo, W Cr, Ni, Mo Example 1018 4310 1040 43 40 1095 4190 304 Hardenability + ++ +++ TS - + ++ EL + + - - -- ++ Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic. sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines vessels hammers applic. furnaces blades V. corros. resistant increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility

StainLess Steels If metallurgist Harry Brearly, the man credited with the development of STAINLESS steel, had his way we would know this family of alloys as RUSTLESS steel. However, even in 1913, the Cutlery Manager of the Sheffield (England) steel plant where the new alloy was devised, one Earnest Stuart, decided that the name rustless was NO great MARKETING tool. His test for utensils made from this new product was to dip knife blades in vinegar and he noted they STAINED LESS than other metals.

What is Stainless Steel?
Must Contain: >10.5% Cr, <1% C The Cr Alloying Creates a Cr2O3 surface Layer that resists oxidation (i.e., rusting) and makes the material "passive" or corrosion resistant (i.e., "stainless"). Three MAIN Branches Ferritic → Cr Only, BCC Austenitic → Ni Added, FCC, NONmag Martensitic → Hard & Brittle

Martensitic StainLess Steels
12 to 18% chromium Basic Characteristics Are magnetic Can be Tempered by "heat treatment" Have "poor" welding characteristics Common Uses Knife blades Surgical instruments Fasteners Shafts Springs Grades/Forms Metallurgical structure - Martensitic Grade: 410 (most used), 420 (cutlery), 440C (for very high hardness) UNS: S41000, S42000, S44004

Ferritic StainLess Steel
12 to 18% Cr; <0.2% C Basic Character Are magnetic CANNOT be hardened by "heat treatment" always used in the annealed or softened condition Poor Weldability Common Uses Automotive exhaust and fuel lines Architectural trim Cooking utensils Bank vaults Grades/Forms Metallurgical structure - Ferritic Grade: 409 (high temperature), 430 (most used) UNS: S40900, S43000

Austenitic StainLess Steel
Nickel added and the Cr level increased Structure Stays FCC to Room Temp Basic Character Are NOT magnetic CANNOT be hardened by "heat treatment" BUT CAN be hardened by cold working Have the "BEST" corrosion resistance Can be easily welded Have excellent cleanability and hygiene characteristics Have exceptional resistance to both high and low temperature

Austenitic StainLess Steel cont.1
Common Uses Kitchen sinks Architectural applications such as roofs and gutters, doors and windows, tubular frames Food processing equipment Restaurant food preparation areas Chemical Vessels Ovens/Furnaces Heat exchangers Grades/Forms Metallurgical structure - Austenitic Grade: 304 (most used), 310 (for high temperature), 316 (for better corrosion resistance), 317 (for best corrosion resistance)

Other StainLess Steels
Austenitic Grades Forms (cont) UNS: S30400, S31000, S31600, S31700 Duplex StainLess MicroStructure is Combination of Ferritic and Austenitic Typical Composition Cr = 18 to 26% Ni = 4-7% Mo = 2-3% Common Uses Sea water applications Heat exchangers Desalination plants Food pickling plants

StainLess Steels Compared

NONferrous (No Iron) Alloys

Process: Iron Ore → Steel
Coke Limestone 3CO+ Fe 2 O 3 2Fe +3CO C + CO 2CO CaCO CaO+CO CaO + SiO +Al slag purification reduction of iron ore to metal heat generation Molten iron BLAST FURNACE air layers of coke and iron ore gas refractory vessel

Metal Fabrication Methods-I
6 • Forging (wrenches, crankshafts) FORMING • Drawing (rods, wire, tubing) often at elev. T • Rolling (I-beams, rails) • Extrusion (rods, tubing) Adapted from Fig. 11.7, Callister 6e. CASTING JOINING

Forming (Working) Temperature
Hot Working recrystallization less energy to deform Oxidation  poor finish lower strength Cold Working Strain Hardens More Energy to Deform Little Oxidation Better Dim Control Cold Working → AnIsotropic MicroStrucure Frature Forged Swaged

Metal Fabrication Methods-II
plaster die formed around wax prototype CASTING • Sand Casting (large parts, e.g., auto engine blocks) • Investment Casting (low volume, complex shapes e.g., jewelry, turbine blades) • Die Casting (high volume, low T alloys) • Continuous Casting (simple slab shapes) FORMING JOINING molten solidified

Metal Fabrication Methods-III
JOINING • Powder Processing (materials w/low ductility) • Welding (when one large part is impractical) • Heat affected zone: (region in which the microstructure has been changed). CASTING FORMING pressure heat point contact at low T densification by diffusion at higher T area contact densify piece 1 piece 2 fused base metal filler metal (melted) base metal (melted) unaffected heat affected zone

Metals - Thermal Processing
ANNEALING  Heat to Tanneal, then Cool Slowly Types of Annealing • Process Anneal : Negate effect of cold working by (recovery/ recrystallization) Stress Relief Reduce stress caused by: -plastic deformation -nonuniform cooling -phase transform. Normalize (steels): Deform steel with large grains, then normalize to make grains small. Full Anneal Make soft steels for good forming by heating to get g , then cool in furnace to get coarse P. Spheroidize Make very soft steels for good machining. Heat just below T E & hold for 15-25h.

Steel Heat Treating Annealing Quenching Tempering Martensite
800 Steel Heat Treating Austenite (stable) a) b) TE T(°C) A P Annealing Forms Pearlite 600 B Quenching Forms Martensite 400 A 100% 50% 0% c) Tempering Martensite Tempers toward Spheroidite 0% 200 M + A 50% M + A 90% -1 3 5 10 10 10 10 time (s)

Hardenability - Steels
Depends on Ability to form martensite Jominy end quench test to measure Hardenability 24°C water specimen (heated to g phase field) flat ground 4” 1 ” RockWell Hardness As the water jet sprays onto the end of the hot, glowing specimen, a cold dark region spreads up the specimen. The cold region has transformed from austenite to a mixture of martensite, ferrite and pearlite. Hardness, HRC Distance from quenched end Hardness versus distance from the quenched end

Jominy-Hardness vs Position
distance from quenched end (in) Hardness, HRC 20 4 6 1 2 3 600 00 A M P Martensite Martensite + Pearlite Fine Pearlite Pearlite 0.1 10 100 1000 T(°C) M(start) Time (s) 0% % M(finish) Misses A→P Band; All g Turns to Martensite Partially Intersects A→P Band. About 20% of g forms Pearlite; the Remaining 80% forms Martensite Passes Completely Thru the A→P Band at Lower-T, Yielding 100%, and Finer, Pearlite Passes Completely Thru the A→P Band at Higher-T, Yielding 100%, and Coarser Pearlite

Hardenability vs Composition
Jominy End-Quench Test for 0.4%C Stl T(°C) 10 -1 3 5 200 4 00 6 8 Time (s) M(start) M(90%) T E A B shift from A to B due to alloying Cooling rate (°C/s) Hardness, HRC 20 4 6 1 2 3 50 Distance from quenched end (mm) 10 100 4140 8640 5140 1040 5 8 %M 4340 contain Ni, Cr, Mo (0.2 to 2wt%) These elements shift the "nose“ of A→P Band Martensite is easier to Form with alloying “Alloy Steels“ 4140, 4340, 5140, 8640

Quenching Medium & Geometry
Effect of Quenching Medium Medium air oil water Severity of Quench small moderate large Hardness small moderate large Effect of Geometry → When Surface:Volume Ratio Increases COOLING RATE and HARDNESS INcreases Position center surface Cooling rate small large Hardness small large

Precipitation Hardening
Concept: Particles Impede Dislocations e.g.; Al-Cu System Procedure Pt A: Solution heat treat All θ Disolves (goes into Solution) to Form α-Only Pt B: Quench to Room Temperature Freeze in the α-Only Structure SuperSaturated α Pt C: Precipitation Reheat to nucleate small θ crystals within α Matrix

Precipitation Hardening cont.
Time-Temperature Plot for Age (Precipitation) Hardening Pt A (sol’n heat treat) Pt B Pt C (precipitate θ) Temp. Time Other Age Hardening Alloy Systems Cu-Be Cu-Sn Mg-Al As the water jet sprays onto the end of the hot, glowing specimen, a cold dark region spreads up the specimen. The cold region has transformed from austenite to a mixture of martensite, ferrite and pearlite.

Age Hardened Properties
Example = 2014 Al → 4%-Cu Alloyed precipitation heat treat time (h) tensile strength (MPa) 3 00 4 5 200 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 204°C 149 °C non-equil. solid solution many small precipitates “aged” fewer large “overaged” %EL (2in sample) 1 2 3 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 204°C 149 °C precipitation heat treat time (h) %EL reaches minimum with precipitation time Increasing T accelerates Ageing process σu Peaks with Precipitation Time

Over Ageing → Lg Precipitates
Optimum Ageing Yields Fine Dispersion of Precipitates Over-Ageing Results in Agglomeration of Precipitates

OverAging Explained – Al/Cu

Aluminum Soln/Age Tempers

Summary – Apps & Processing
Steels: Increase σu, Hardness (and cost) by adding C (low alloy steels) Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels) Ductility usually DEcreases w/additions Non-ferrous Alloys: Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, Noble metals Fabrication techniques: forming, casting, joining

Summary – Apps & Processing
Hardenability Increases With Alloy Content Precipitation hardening effective means to Increase Strength in Al, Cu, and Mg alloys.

WhiteBoard Work None Today See Appendices UNS and SuperAlloys
Cast Iron Microstructure of Rene 80 precipitation hardening nickel alloy showing intergranular carbide particles (white irregular areas) and brown, gamma prime particles in the nickel alloy base metal. Kallings Etch, 400X

- Appendix - UNS SuperAlloys
Engineering 45 - Appendix - UNS SuperAlloys Bruce Mayer, PE Licensed Electrical & Mechanical Engineer

Unified Numbering System
The UNS establishes a series of designations for metals and alloys. Each UNS designation consists of a SINGLE-LETTER prefix followed by FIVE digits. In most cases the letter is suggestive of the family of metals identified: for example, F for cast irons, T for tool steel, S for stainless steels.

UNS Series Descriptions
Metal System A00001 to A99999 Aluminum and Al Alloys C00001 to C99999 Copper and copper alloys D00001 to D99999 Specified mech. property steels E00001 to E99999 Rare earth and rare earthlike metals and alloys F00001 to F99999 Cast irons G00001 to G99999 AISI and SAE carbon and alloy steels H00001 to H99999 AISI and SAE H-steels J00001 to J99999 Cast steels

Metal System K00001 to K99999 Miscellaneous steels and ferrous alloys L00001 to L99999 Low-melting metals and alloys M00001 to M99999 Miscellaneous nonferrous metals and alloys N00001 to N99999 Nickel and nickel alloys P00001 to P99999 Precious metals and alloys R00001 to R99999 Reactive and refractory metals and alloys

Metal System S00001 to S99999 Heat and corrosion resistant (stainless) steels T00001 to T99999 Tool steels, wrought and cast W00001 to W99999 Welding filler metals Z00001 to Z99999 Zinc and zinc alloys

UNS For Low Carbon Steels
Consider the UNS G-Series → AISI and SAE carbon and alloy steels These Steels have Nine SubGroups Based on the Primary Alloying Element 1 - Plain Carbon (not an alloy steel) 2 - Nickel 3 - Chromium and Nickel 4 – Molybdenum 5 - Chromium 6 - Chromium and Vanadium 7 – Tungsten 8 - Nickel, Chromium and Molybdenum 9 - Silicon and Manganese

UNS Embedded Info Sometimes but Not Always, the UNS Number contains Alloying Information For the Low Carbon Steels in Particular G10400 = G carbon and alloy steels Future Use Plain Steel 0% Alloying 0.40% Carbon

AISI/SAE↔UNS X-Consistency
AISI 1095 = UNS G10950 AISI 4340 = UNS G43400 etc.

NONferrous Metals Commercially Significant Non-Iron-Based Metals
Aluminum and its Alloys Beryllium Cobalt and its Alloys Cobalt Based SuperAlloys Copper and its Alloys Gold Hafnium Indium Iridium Lead and its Alloys Magnesium and Alloys

NONferrous Metals cont.1
Commercially Significant Non-Iron-Based Metals Molybdenum Nickel and Alloys Nickel Based SuperAlloys Osmium Platinum Rhenium Rhodium Ruthenium Silver Tantalum Thorium Tin and its Alloys Titanium and its Alloys

NONferrous Metals cont.2
Commercially Significant Non-Iron-Based Metals Tungsten Vanadium Zinc and its alloys Zirconium and its Alloys Zr has Very Low Neutron Cross-Section Use as Nuclear Fuel Rods

SuperAlloys Three Main Types Major Alloying Element = Cr
Cobalt-Based Nickel Based Nickel+Iron Based Less Expensive Major Alloying Element = Cr Other Significant Alloying Elements = Mo, Al Performance Able to maintain high strengths at high temperatures Good corrosion and oxidation resistance at high temperatures (Cr, Al) Good resistance to creep and rupture at high temperatures

Ni-Based SuperAlloys Since 1950, these alloys have predominated in the range °C Due to the presence of very stable ’ ordered FCC precipitate (Ni3Al,Ti) ’ provides high temperature strength thru the Precipitation-Strengthening Mechanism The ’ phase in Co-based superalloys dissolves at °C Fabricated Double Wall Aircraft Turbine Component made from INCO 718 sheet and cast material, heat treated and stress relieved prior to final machining.

Co-Based SuperAlloys Exhibit superior hot corrosion and strength characteristics at temperatures °C Operating temperatures of the turbine and combustion section Co-based alloys sometimes used in the lower range of 750°C in preference to Ni-based superalloys Can be air or argon cast and are less expensive than the vacuum-processed Nickel alloys

SuperAlloy Examples Haynes-25 = L605 = UNS R30605
Haynes 25™ has an excellent temperature strength and oxidation resistance to 2000 ºF. Inconel 601 = UNS N06601 Inconel 601® is a standard engineering material and has a great resistance to heat and corrosion. Inconel 601® also has high strength and good workability. Inconel 601® can be used in the heat-treating industry for muffles, furnace components, and for heat-treating baskets and trays.

Aluminum Alloy Numbering
Consider Al Alloy UNS A13560 First Digit (A) An alpha indicator of base metal. Always A for aluminum Second Digit (1) Indicates a modification of the original alloy Third Digit (3) Designates alloy family 2XX Copper 5XX Magnesium 8XX Tin 3XX Si w/ Cu and/or Mg 6XX Unused 9XX Others 4XX Silicon 7XX Zinc

Aluminum Alloy No.s cont.
Consider Al Alloy UNS A13560 Fourth and Fifth Digits (56) Assigned ID number for the particular alloy Sixth Digit (0) 0 Casting Specification 1 Ingot Specification 2 More Tightly Refined Ingot Specification

Aluminum Alloy Examples
Aluminium 6061-T6 = UNS A96061 Material Notes: General 6061 characteristics and uses: Excellent joining characteristics, good acceptance of applied coatings. Combines relatively high strength, good workability, and high resistance to corrosion; widely available. The T8 and T9 tempers offer better chipping characteristics over the T6 temper. Applications: Aircraft fittings, camera lens mounts, couplings, marines fittings and hardware, electrical fittings and connectors, decorative or misc. hardware, hinge pins, magneto parts, brake pistons, hydraulic pistons, appliance fittings, valves and valve parts; bike frames

Progress Against Jet Engine Turbine Blade CREEP
All Done for Today Progress Against Jet Engine Turbine Blade CREEP GRAlN STRUCTURE TYPES The measurement of grain size, whether by the chart comparison method or by manual or automated measurement methods, is complicated by the different types of grain structures encountered and by the etched appearance of the grains. For example, as shown in Figure A, we may have ferrite grains in a non- heat treated or non-hardenable body-centered cubic (bcc) metal or alloy. These do not contain annealing twins, but could contain deformation twins, and second-phase constituents may be present. The example shown is ferrite in a low-carbon sheet steel; carbides are present. This specimen was etched with nital and not all of the grain boundaries are visible; those that are visible are variable in darkness and width. These factors are a minor nuisance for manual rating and a significant problem for automatic rating. Figure B depicts a single phase austenitic alloy that contains annealing twins. Like the previous micrograph, it shows the boundaries as dark lines, a so-called "flat etch." The austenitic alloy shown, L605, illustrates a common problem with such alloys, they are very difficult to etch so that all of the grain boundaries are visible. This makes it very difficult to measure the grain size with a high degree of precision. Also, when rating grain size the twin boundaries must be ignored, which is not easy, especially by image analysis. Not all austenitic alloys will exhibit annealing twins, aluminum alloys rarely are twinned. Austenitic alloys may also be etched with reagents that produce grain contrast or color variations as a function of their crystallographic orientation. Figure C shows the twinned austenitic grain structure of cartridge brass that was etched producing grains with different contrast in black and white. Note that unlike the flat etched L605 specimen, all of the grains are revealed. This structure is easy to rate by the comparison method if the grain size chart depicts grains etched in the same manner. This condition is virtually impossible to measure by automatic image analysis, however. Again, twins are present but the coloration or contrast varies within the grains. To measure twinned austenitic grain structures by image analysis, we need to either suppress the etching of twins or be able to identify and ignore them. At the same time, all of the grain boundaries must be revealed and be identifiable. The best solution is to use an etchant that reveals only the grain boundaries. To illustrate this, the next micrograph, Figure D, shows AlSl 316L stainless steel electrolytically etched with 60% nitric acid in water (Pt cathode, 0.8 V dc, 45 s). The grain boundaries are almost completely revealed but no twins are visible. The accompanying micrograph, Figure E, shows a tint etched view of this specimen at the same magnification where the twins are visible. In dealing with carbon and alloy steels, the steelmaker generally performs a test known as the McQuaid- Ehn test, to determine if the steel is inherently fine grained. A specimen is carburized at 1700"F for 8 h and furnace cooled. The excess carbon in the carburized case precipitates during cooling as cementite in the austenite grain boundaries present at the end of the carburizing cycle. The specimen is cut and polished so that the case structure is revealed. Generally, nital is used as the etchant and a comparison chart rating is made where the Test Methods E 112 chart exhibits the same contrast. Such a structure, Figure F, is not very good if actual measurements are made, especially if image analysis is employed. The alternative is to darken the grain boundary cementite films. A number of etchants will darken cementite, the one used here, Figure G, was Beraha's sodium molybdate tint etch but the familiar alkaline sodium picrate etch works well also. Etched in this way, the grain structure shows up much more clearly and image analysis could be used. Once an alloy steel part is heat treated, only etching can be used to try to reveal the prior-austenite grain boundaries, that is, the austenite boundaries present when the part was soaked at the austenitizing temperature. While many etchants have been developed for this purpose, such work is fraught with difficulty. One of the most successful prior-austenite grain boundary etchants is a saturated aqueous solution of picric acid containing a wetting agent, several of which have been used. This etch is sensitive to phosphorus segregated to the prior-austenite grain boundaries and will not work otherwise. Figure H illustrates a fairly successful effort with a quenched and tempered experimental alloy steel. This type of etch rarely, if ever, yields an etch quality adequate for image analysis and is usually accompanied by substantial pitting. Blade made out of a nickel-base superalloy with polycrystalline a microstructure The creep life of the blades is limited by the grain boundaries which are deformation paths. Blade made out of a nickel-base superalloy tha has been directionally-solidified, resulting in a columnar grain structure which mitigates grain-boundary induced creep. Blade made out of a nickel-base superalloy that has been Spiral-solidified, resulting in a single grain structure which eliminates grain-boundary induced creep. Blade is directionally-solidified via a SPIRAL SELECTOR, which permits only ONE crystal to grow into the blade.

Iron Ore to Steel To produce steel, the first step is to make what is called pig iron. Alternating layers of iron ore, limestone (a mineral used to purify the mixture), and coke (coal that has been prepared specially for this process) are poured into a blast furnace. Hot air at 1200 degrees F is then blasted through the exhaust vent to create the combustion process. The coke then burns the mixture at 3000 degrees F and two reactions occur. The first reaction is when the carbon from coke and the oxygen from the air combine to liberate the metallic iron and make it liquid, directing it to the bottom of the furnace. The second reaction is when the limestone attracts the impurities. These impurities float to the top of the melted pig iron and is siphoned off as slag. Every few hours, the melted pig iron is removed from the bottom of the furnace and further processed. Pig iron contains 4 to 5% carbon which makes it much too brittle to be used as is. Reducing the extra carbon in the pig iron will convert it to steel. This process is called "refining". Just as crude oil is refined into gasoline or kerosene pig iron is refined into steel. Refining pig iron into steel by reduction of the the carbon by the “basic oxygen” furnace steel making process. In this process, the amount of carbon is decreased by regulating the amount of oxygen that is injected into the pig iron. The oxygen removes the unwanted carbon by oxidation. This unwanted carbon, together with a mixture of other impurities constitutes the slag and is removed from the furnace. COKE = mosly Coal → C-H solid

Licensed Electrical & Mechanical Engineer BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu
Engineering 45 - Appendix - Cast Iron Bruce Mayer, PE Licensed Electrical & Mechanical Engineer

Cast Iron Summary Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
more commonly wt%C low melting Temperature (also brittle) so easiest to cast Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite Fe3C →3Fe (α) + C (graphite) generally a slow process

True Fe-C Equilibrium Diagram
“Graphite formation promoted by Si > 1 wt% slow cooling 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 1 2 3 4 90 L g +L  + Graphite Liquid + Graphite (Fe) Co , wt% C 0.65 740°C T(°C)  + Graphite 100 1153°C Austenite 4.2 wt% C a + g

Types of Cast Iron Gray Cast Iron Ductile Cast Iron graphite flakes
weak & brittle under tension stronger under compression excellent vibrational dampening wear resistant Ductile Cast Iron add Mg or Ce graphite in nodules not flakes matrix often pearlite - better ductility

Types of Cast Iron White Iron Malleable Iron
<1wt% Si so harder but brittle more cementite Malleable Iron heat treat at ºC graphite in rosettes more ductile graphite in nodules not flakes matrix often pearlite - better ductility

Cast Iron Production

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