1. Chapter 7: Memory: Remembrance of Things Past – and Future Lectures 10 & 11

2. Learning Outcomes
Define memory and differentiate between types of memories.
Explain the process of memory.
Explain the stages of memory.

3. Learning Outcomes
Identify contributors to forgetting.
Describe the biological aspects of memory.

4. If you can see, you have a photographic memory.
Truth or Fiction?
A woman who could not remember who she was automatically dialed her mother’s number when the police gave her a telephone.
If you can see, you have a photographic memory.
Truth of Fiction? A woman who could not remember who she was automatically dialed her mother’s number when the police gave her a telephone. True.
Truth or Fiction? If you can see, you have a photographic memory. True.

5. Learning must be meaningful if we are to remember it.
Truth or Fiction?
Learning must be meaningful if we are to remember it.
It may be easier for you to recall the name of your first-grade teacher than the name of someone you just met at a party.
Truth or Fiction? Learning must be meaningful if we are to remember it. False.
Truth or Fiction? It may be easier for you to recall the name of your first-grade teacher than the name of someone you just met at a party. True.

6. Truth or Fiction?
All of our experiences are permanently imprinted on the brain, so the proper stimulus can cause us to remember them exactly.
You may always recall where you were and what you were doing on the morning of September 11, 2001.
Truth or Fiction? All of our experiences are permanently imprinted on the brain, so the proper stimulus can cause us to remember them exactly. False.
Fiction or Truth? You may always recall where you were and what you were doing on the morning of September 11, True.

7. Truth or Fiction?
If you study with the stereo on, you would probably do better to take the test with the stereo on.
Learning Spanish can make it harder to remember French – and vice versa.
Truth or Fiction? If you study with the stereo on, you would probably do better to take the test with the stereo on. True.
Truth or Fiction? Learning Spanish can make it harder to remember French – and vice versa. True.

8. Exercise Appearance Chestnut Patient
Count the number of letters in those words
Self Assessment: Five Challenges to Your Memory -- See text, page 142 for a series of memory challenges.

9. Exercise
Last line: Examine the following drawings for 1 min. Then copy the names of the figures oh sheet of paper. Soon I’ll be asking you to draw those figures.

10. Memory Systems
Self Assessment: Five Challenges to Your Memory -- See text, page 142 for a series of memory challenges.

11. 1. Explicit Versus Implicit Memories
Explicit memory – declarative memory
Memory for specific information; that can be stated or declared
Information can be autobiographical or general
Implicit memory – nondeclarative memory
Memory of how to perform a procedure or skill
Skill memories

12. 2. Explicit (Declarative) Memory
Episodic memory – autobiographical memory
Memories of things that happen to us or take place in our presence
Autobiographical memories
“I remember….”
Semantic memory
General knowledge
“I know …..”

13. 3. Implicit Memory (Nondeclarative)
Procedural memory,
– Motor Skills memory
Simple classically conditioned responses (CR)
Things done repeatedly – habits
Attitude Formation (e.g., False Fame Effect Study)
Repetition priming (NEXT)
Truth of Fiction? A woman who could not remember who she was automatically dialed her mother’s number when the police gave her a telephone. True. When asked for the phone numbers of people she knew, she had had no answer. She could not declare her mother’s phone number. She could not make the number explicit. But dialing her mother’s phone number was a habit, and she did it on automatic pilot. She had been primed for the task by dialing the number thousands of times

14. Complete the stems
App__________
Che__________
Pat___________

15. 4. Priming
It was demonstration of priming - Identifying or processing stimulus that has been experienced previously.
Memory of things that reflect repetition that makes associations automatic
Memory of the alphabet or multiplication tables
Requires less neural activity
Example w/elephant

16. 5. Retrospective Memory Versus Prospective Memory
Recalling information previously learned
Episodic, semantic and implicit memories
Prospective memory
Remembering to do things in the future
May fail due to preoccupation or distraction

17. 6. Prospective Memory
Prospective memory tasks
Habitual tasks
Easier to remember than occasional tasks
Event-based tasks
Triggered by events
Time-based tasks
Performed at a certain time or after a certain time has elapsed

18. 7. Influences on Retrospective and Prospective Memory
Age related decline
More related to speed of cognitive processing than loss of information
Moods and attitudes and prospective memory
Depressed people less likely to push to remind themselves to do what they intend to do

19. Memory- as Information Processing

20. 8. Encoding
Transforming information into psychological formulas that can be represented mentally
Visual – represented as a picture
Auditory – represented as sounds
Semantic – represented in terms of meanings
Encoding- Info is acquired and processed into neural code (just as info is entered with a keyboard)
Codes: Visual, auditory, semantic.
Give example from real life:

21. Storage means maintaining info over time OR
The retention of encoded representations over time that corresponds to some changes in the nervous system that registers the event.
Methods of storing information
Maintenance rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal
Truth or Fiction? Learning must be meaningful if we are to remember it. False. Maintenance rehearsal or mentally repeating is adequate.

22. 10.Retrieval
Locating information and returning it to consciousness
Retrieval relies on cues
Students’ Examples

23. Process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.
11. Definition of Memory
Process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

24. Stages of Memory

25. 12. Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory
Stages determine whether and how long information is stored
Three stages of memory
Sensory memory
Short-term memory (STM)
Long-term memory (LTM)

26. Three Stages of Memory
Figure 7.1 Three Stages of Memory. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes that there are three stages of memory: (a) sensory memory, (b) short-term memory, and (c) long-term memory. Part A shows that sensory information impacts upon the registers of sensory memory. Memory of it can be transferred to short-term memory before decaying. If we attend to the information, much of it can be transferred to short-term memory (STM). Part B: Information may be maintained in STM through rehearsal – maintenance rehearsal or elaborative rehearsal. Otherwise, it may decay or be displaced. Part C: Once information is transferred to long-term memory (LTM), it may be filed away indefinitely. However, if the information in LTM is organized poorly, or if we cannot find cues to retrieve it, it can be lost.
Go to 4ltrpress.cengage.com/psych to access an interactive version of this figure.

27. First stage of memory encountered by a stimulus
13. Sensory Memory
First stage of memory encountered by a stimulus
Holds impressions briefly, but long enough so series of perceptions become psychologically continuous
Capacity: large
Duration: visual, 1/10 sec.; auditory: 2sec.
Info lost through:
Decays
Displacement
Memory trace – An assumed change in the nervous system that reflects the impression made by a stimulus. Memory traces are said to be “held” in sensory registers.

28. 14. Short-Term Memory OR Working Memory
STM- The memory system that codes info according to sound and holds about 7 items (+ or - 2) for less than 30 sec
Also called working memory
Prefrontal Cortex
Truth or Fiction? It may be easier for you to recall the name of your first-grade teacher than the name of someone you just met at a party. True. You need to rehearse new information in order to “save” it but you may only need the proper cue to retrieve information from your long-term memory.

29. 15. Serial Position Effect
Tendency to recall the first and last items in a series
May be more attention to first and last items
May rehearse first item more often and last most recently

30. 16. Chunking
Grouping of stimuli that is perceived as a discrete piece of information
Number of items held in STM –
Seven (plus or minus two)
Chunking stimuli allows for semantic coding

31. 17. Interference in Short-Term Memory
Attention to distracting information interferes with STM
Appearance of new information in STM displaces old information (e.g., desk )

32. 18. The Effect of Interference on Short-Term Memory
Figure 7.3 The Effect of Interference on Short-Term Memory. In this experiment, college students were asked to remember a series of three letters while they counted backward by threes. After just 3 seconds, retention was cut in half. Ability to recall the words was almost completely lost by 15 seconds.

33. 19. Human Memory PLAY VIDEO
Human Memory. Gordon Bower piece on development on long term memory.
PLAY
VIDEO

34. Vast storehouse of information Long-term memories are distorted
20. Long-Term Memory
Vast storehouse of information
Long-term memories are distorted
Schemas bias our memories
Schema is a way of mentally representing the world, such as a belief or expectation, that can influence our perception of persons, objects, & situations.
There is no limit for amount of information stored in long-term memory (LTM)
Long-term memories may last a life-time
Not lost by displacement
Truth or Fiction? All of our experiences are permanently imprinted on the brain, so the proper stimulus can cause us to remember them exactly. False.

35. 21. Memory as Reconstructive
Please reconstruct the drawings shown in the beginning of the lecture.
Truth or Fiction? All of our experiences are permanently imprinted on the brain, so the proper stimulus can cause us to remember them exactly. False.

36. 22. Memory as Reconstructive
Figure 7.4 Memory as Reconstructive. In their classic experiment, Carmichael, Hogan, and Walter (1932) showed people the figures in the left-hand box and made remarks as suggested in the other boxes. For example, the experimenter might say, “This drawing looks like eyeglasses (or a dumbbell).” When people later reconstructed the drawings, they were influenced by the labels.

37. 23. Levels of Processing Model of Memory
Memories endure when processed deeply
Attention, encoding, storing, retrieval all involved

38. Tend to remember events that are important and emotionally stirring
24. Flashbulb Memories
Tend to remember events that are important and emotionally stirring
Memories are more distinctive
Increased networks of association, that is we are likely to rehearse them elaboratively. Our rehearsal may include great expectations, or deep fears, for the future
Elaborative rehearsal
Secretion of stress hormones, help curve events into memory- “as almost to leave a scar upon the cerebral tissues.”
Fiction or Truth? You may always recall where you were and what you were doing on the morning of September 11, True.

39. 25. Organization in Long-Term Memory
Categorization of information
Hierarchical structure
When items are correctly organized in long-term memory, you are more likely to recall-or know-accurate info about them. E.g. Do you remember if Whales breathe underwater?

40. 26. Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon
“Feeling of knowing”
Acoustic and semantic coding may help provide a useful retrieval cue
May reflect incomplete learning
Elaborative rehearsal did not take place
The experience may be so new that Elaborative rehearsal does not take place, or semantic and acoustic coding does not occur. The problem lies not in retrieval, but in the original process of learning and memory- that is, encoding and storage.

41. 27. Context and State Dependent Memory
Context dependent
Context in which information was originally acquired
State dependent
Biological or emotional state
Truth or Fiction? If you study with the stereo on, you would probably do better to take the test with the stereo on. True. Being in the proper context, in this case with the stereo on, can dramatically enhance recall.
Studying in the same class where the test will be taken is GOOD for recall
Other examples by students?
- State dependent-sometimes we retrieve info better when we are in a biological or emotional state similar to the one in which we encoded and stored the info.

42. Forgetting

43. 28. How do We Measure Forgetting?
Nonsense syllables
Depend on acoustic coding and maintenance rehearsal
Three tasks for measurement
Recognition
Recall
Relearning
Method of Savings
Recognition – Identification of objects or events encountered before
Recall – Retrieval or reconstruction of learned material
Relearning – Material is relearned more quickly than it is learned initially
Method of savings – Difference between the number of repetitions originally required to learn a list and the number of repetitions required to relearn the list after a certain amount of time has elapsed is calculated
Savings – The difference between the number of repetitions originally required to learn a list and the number of repetitions required to relearn the list after a certain amount of time has elapsed.

44. 29. Ebbinghaus’s Classic Curve of Forgetting
Figure 7.7 Ebbinghaus’s Classic Curve of Forgetting. Recollection of lists of words drops precipitously during the first hour after learning. Losses of learning then become more gradual. Retention drops by half within the first hour. It takes a month (31 days), however, for retention to be cut in half again.

45. Retroactive interference
30. Interference Theory
Retroactive interference
New learning interferes with the retrieval of old learning
Proactive interference
Older learning interferes with the capacity to retrieve more recently learned material
Truth or Fiction? Learning Spanish can make it harder to remember French – and vice versa. True. Through retroactive and proactive interference.

46. 31. Repression & Recovered Memories
Freudian concept of motivated forgetting
Automatic ejection of painful memories from conscious awareness
Recovery of repressed memories has little scientific support
Implanting false memories (Elizabeth Loftus’ studies on memory)
In one study, researchers were able to readily convince half of the subjects that they had been lost in a mall or hospitalized with severe pain as children.

47. 32. Infantile Amnesia
Freud – repression
Immature hippocampus
Cognitive explanations
No interest in remembering the past
Specific episodes versus networks of memories
Unreliable use of symbolic language

48. 33. Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia
Unable to remember events that occur after physical trauma
Retrograde Amnesia
Unable to remember events that occur prior to physical trauma
How to remember those two terms?
Truth or Fiction? After part of his hippocampus was surgically removed, a man could not form new memories. Each time he was reminded of his uncle’s dying, he grieved as he had when he first heard it. It is true that a man could not form new memories after part of his hippocampus was surgically removed.
Two segments are available on the series, The Mind, which is available free (you must register) at URL:
10. Life Without Memory: The Case of Clive Wearing, Part 1 Raises many questions about the nature of memory and its importance to human existence. Introduces the viewer to Clive Wearing, who is incapable of making new memories due to viral encephalitis.
11. Clive Wearing, Part 2: Living Without Memory Presents an extraordinary example of the relationship between brain damage and memory function by reintroducing the viewer to Clive Wearing 13 years after his appearance in part one.

49. The Biology of Memory

50. 34. Neural Activity and Memory
Experience increases dendrites and synapses in cerebral cortex
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Following brief, rapid stimulation an enhanced efficiency in synaptic transmission
Neurotransmitters and hormones

51. One Avenue to Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
Figure 7.8 One Avenue to Long-Term Potentiation. LTP can occur via the action of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and glutamate at synapses. Structurally, LTP can also occur as shown in Parts A and B, when dendrites sprout new branches that connect with transmitting axons, increasing the amount of stimulation they receive.

52. 35. Brain Structures and Memory
Hippocampus- helps to store info
new memories; episodic memories
relays sensory information to cortex
Sensory cortex areas
Store sensory information
Integrated by limbic system

53. 36. Brain Structures and Memory
Prefrontal cortex
Ability to represent and be aware of past, present and future events
Thalamus
Formation of verbal memories

54. 37. Prefrontal Cortex