1. Igneous Rocks

2. The Rock Cycle
The continuous and reversible processes that illustrates how one rock changes to another.
“One rock is the raw material for another”.

3. The Rock Cycle

4. Rock Cycle Processes – Crystallization

5. Rock Cycle Processes - Weathering

6. Rock Cycle Processes - Lithification

7. Rock Cycle Processes - Metamorphism

8. Magma and Lava Similarities Differences
Parent material of igneous rocks
Forms from partial melting of rocks at depth
both consist of melt and possibly solid crystals
Differences
magma is in the interior of the earth; lava is at the surface.
magma contains volatiles, dissolved gases, that escape at the surface and so are not present in lava.
magma cools very slowly; lava cool relatively rapidly, leading to differences in crystal size.

9. Rate of cooling and crystallization
A slow cooling rate promotes an interlocking mass of mineral crystals, all visible to the naked eye. This granite crystallized from slow-cooling magma.

10. Rate of cooling and crystallization
A rapid rate of cooling doesn’t allow the mineral crystals to grow large enough to see with the naked eye. This basalt crystallized from lava.

11. Rate of cooling and crystallization
If lava cools too rapidly, the orderly repeating crystalline structure, associated with minerals, does not have time to form. This obsidian is not crystalline, instead, it is a considered a glass.

12. Igneous Rock Classification Criteria #1: Texture
Overall appearance of rock based on size and arrangement of mineral crystals
Texture indicates the environment in which the rock crystallized since crystal size is determined by the cooling environment
Extrusive (volcanic) rocks cooled quickly at the surface from lava
Intrusive (plutonic) rocks cooled slowlyh at depth from magma
Includes secondary factors such as vesicles (cavities left by escaping gas)

14. Aphanitic (fine-grained)
Rapid rate of surface cooling results in microscopic crystals
The top sample is rhyolite, which has the same compostion as granite
Aphanitic rocks may exhibit a secondary vesicular texture, like this basalt, as gas escaped from the lava.

15. Phaneritic (coarse-grained)
Slow cooling in Earth’s interior results in visible crystals, like this granite
Crystals approximately the same size.

16. Pegmatitic (very coarse-grained)
Composed of crystals >1 cm in diameter
They form late in the crystallization stage of a magma.

17. Porphyritic - large crystals embedded in a fine-grained groundmass
Crystallized in (at least) 2 different environments
Large crystals, phenocrysts, crystallize first
Matrix of smaller crystals, the groundmass, crystallize last
See sample #10.

18. Glassy
When molten rock cools too quickly, the resulting rock lacks crystalline structure and is called a glass, like the obsidian (top).
A glassy-textured rock can also have a vesicular texture, like the pumice shown in the picture.

19. Pyroclastic
Various-sized fragments ejected during a violent volcanic eruption
the most common fragment is ash-sized and the resulting rock is called welded tuff.
Often appear similar to sedimentary rocks
Larger fragments form

20. Pyroclastic
Larger-sized fragments form other types of pyroclastic rocks, such as this vesicular scoria (see sample #7), made from cinder-sized fragments.

21. Decide if each igneous texture below indicates an extrusive (volcanic), or intrusive (plutonic) origin, based on its texture:

22. A and C are extrusive and B is intrusive D probably started out in an intrusive environment and ended up in an extrusive environment

23. Igneous Rock Classification Criteria #2: Mineral Composition
Igneous rocks are composed primarily of silicate minerals
Dark (ferromagnesian) silicates
Olivine Group
Pyroxene Group (Augite)
Amphibole Group (Hornblende)
Biotite Mica
Light (nonferromagnesian) silicates
Quartz
Muscovite mica
Feldspars

24. Mafic (Basaltic) composition
Composed of ferromagnesian silicate minerals and calcium-rich feldspar (e.g. labradorite).
Approximately 50% silica (SiO2) content.
More dense (heavy) than granitic rocks
Comprise the ocean floor and many volcanic islands, although also found on continental crust as lava flows, and intrusive bodies.

25. Ultramafic - Peridotite
The lowest silica (SiO2) content of the igneous rocks
Composed entirely of ferromagnesian silicates, with a relatively high iron and magnesium content.
Rarely found in crust; main constituent of the upper mantle.

26. Intermediate ( andesitic) composition
Contains at least 25 percent dark silicate minerals.
Andesite, named after the Andes Mountains in South America, is associated with explosive volcanic activity.
None in our collection 

27. Felsic (Granitic) composition
Composed of primarily of light silicates
Granite not shown here, is a common example.
Contains up to 70% silica (SiO2).
Major constituents of continental crust.
Sample #10 is a felsic porphyry called trachyte.
Rhyolite
Trachyte porphyry

28. Mineralogy of igneous rocks

29. Origin of Magma
Earth’s crust and upper mantle primarily composed of solid rock.
Earth’s outer core is considered molten, but magma has the same composition as mantle and crust, not iron core.
Geologists conclude that magma originates when solid rock of crust and mantle melts.
What causes this to happen?

30. Role of Heat: Geothermal gradient
Rocks in lower crust and upper mantle are already near melting points.
Any additional heat (e.g. basaltic magma beneath silica-rich rocks) may induce melting.

31. What causes rock to melt
Role of pressure (see animation on mantle melting)
Melting point increases with depth due to increased pressure, so rocks that would melt on the surface remain solid at depth.
Reducing the pressure lowers the melting temperature; decompression melting occurs.
Occurs at divergent boundaries, where rock is buoyant and ascending so pressure is low.

32. Decompression melting
Figure 3.14

33. What causes rock to melt
Role of volatiles (i.e. water and dissolved gases)
Volatiles (primarily water) cause rocks to melt at lower temperatures.
This is particularly important where wet oceanic lithosphere descends into the mantle.
See animation on mantle melting addition of volatiles is called wet melting

34. Addition of volatiles (water) lowers the melting point of subducting plate

35. Bowen’s Reaction Series: Systematic crystallization of silicate minerals based on their melting points
High temperature silicates have high melting points (up to 1200 degrees C):
first minerals to crystallize from molten rock, last to melt from solid rock.
Includes ferromagnesian silicates and Ca-rich plagioclase feldspar.

36. Bowen’s Reaction Series: Systematic crystallization of silicate minerals based on their melting points
Low temperature silicates have “low”melting points (as low as 750 degrees C
Last to crystallize from molten rock, and first to melt from solid rock.
non-ferromagnesian silicates, Na-rich plagioclase feldspar and K feldspar.

38. Partial Melting and Magma Formation
Partial melting – incomplete melting of rocks due to differences in mineral melting temperature
Low temperature minerals melt first and form a magma which migrates upward. Low temperature minerals are the ones with a high silica content (quartz, feldspars etc.)
Therefore, the product magma or rock of partial melting always is more silica-rich (i.e. granitic) composition than the parent rock.

39. Partial melting of the solid rock on the left results in a more mafic solid portion and a more felsic magma that is free to rise.

40. Formation of Mafic Magmas
Mafic (basaltic) magmas originate from partial melting of ultramafic rock in the mantle.
These magmas form at mid-ocean ridges by decompression melting and at hot spots.
Much of the oceanic crust is formed by partial melting of ultramafic material.

41. Formation of Andesitic and Felsic Magmas
These magmas originate from:
partial melting of subducting mafic ocean crust which has had water added to it.
assimilation of pieces of continental crust, which is usually felsic.
What is the composition of the Andes of South America?