1. W3 WHG Era 3 – Classical Traditions, World Religions, and Major Empires, 1000 B.C.E./B.C. to 300 C.E./A.D. Part Four: GREEK CIVILIZATION
WHGCEs Middle School Series - Session 7
Part IV
Craig Benjamin

2. Introduction: The Greeks
Ancient Greece differed from most other classical societies we have considered, because they lived in independent, autonomous city-states
Only after the 3rd Century BCE did they play a prominent role in a large, centralized empire established by their northern neighbors the Macedonians
Yet between the 7th and 2nd Centuries BCE the Greeks linked and integrated societies of distant lands through energetic commercial activity across the Mediterranean sea lanes
They also generated a remarkable body of moral thought and philosophical reflection
Just as the traditions of classical Persia, China and India shaped the cultural experiences of those lands, the tradition of the Greeks profoundly influenced the long-term cultural development of the Mediterranean, Europe and West Asia

3. To Include: Part One: Minoan and Mycenaean Civilization
Part Two: Classical Greek Civilization
Part Three: Alexander and the Hellenistic Era
Part Four: Greek Philosophy
To Include:

4. PART ONE: Minoan and Mycenaean Civilization (2200-1200 BCE)
Phoenician Trading Vessel, c BC
Humans inhabited the Balkan region and Greek Peninsula from an early but indeterminate date
From the early 3rd Millennium they increasingly interacted and trade with different Mediterranean and West Asian societies
Thus early Greek societies formed under the influence of Mesopotamians, Egyptians, Phoenicians and others
From the 9th Century BCE onwards, the Greeks organized themselves into a series of city-states, which served as the political basis for the development of classical Greek society

5. The Minoans
Classical Greece preceded by two sophisticated cultures that flourished on the mainland and in the Aegean Islands between 2000 and 1200 BCE
The Minoan civilization (after King Minos) emerged on Crete and spread to other islands in the Aegean, coast of Asia Minor and mainland Greece
Minoans influenced by immigrants from Asia Minor, and by trade and exchange with Egypt and West Asia (due to the central location of Crete)
: greeks

6. Minoan Maritime Trade
Minoan sea craft,
fresco from Knossos
Between 2200 and 1450 Crete was a major center of Mediterranean commerce
As early as 2200 Cretans were traveling aboard advanced sailing craft of Phoenician design
Minoans then became very actively engaged in long-range trade across the Mediterranean
They exchanged Cretan olive oil, wine, wool and pottery for grains, textiles and manufactured goods

7. Minoan Culture: Knossos Palace
Minoan state governed by rulers who used hieroglyphics and an undeciphered script known as Linear A to record their administration
Our knowledge of their culture comes from archaeology - discovery of the palace at Knossos by Sir Arthur Evans in 1900
Palace built of brick, three stories high, 6 acres in area
It had running water and sanitation bettered only by the Romans

8. Knossos Frescoes Between 2000 and 1700 the Minoans built a series of
lavish palaces across the island of Crete, most notably the enormous complex at Knossos
Arthur Evans reconstruction of the' Royal Chamber’ at Knossos
In rich, decorative wall frescoes Minoans appear happy and peaceful. They enjoyed dancing and athletics (on the backs of bulls!)

9. Minoan Women
The principal deity was a Mother Goddess who dressed like a fashionable Minoan woman with flowing hair.
She was probably the inspiration for later Greek goddesses like Athena and Aphrodite
Women enjoyed relative freedom and equality; clothed in brightly colored and patterned dresses, with elaborate ringlets in their hair, generally bare-breasted
Fresco from Knossos
Opening ceremony of the Athens Olympics, 2004

10. The Mycenaeans
C BCE Indo-European-speaking Greek tribes entered mainland Greece
Absorbed earlier culture and settled in fortified citadels at Mycenae, Athens and other sites
By 1600 had adopted Minoan culture; but Mycenaeans militarized sea-raiders
Vast wealth seen in gold, silver and ivory artifacts discovered in the royal palace of Mycenae by German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in 1876
Palace had large audience rooms, apartments, frescoes on the walls, and huge beehive tombs
Gold mask of Mycenaean king
(Homer’s Agamemnon?)
Discovered at Mycenae by
Heinrich Schliemann

11. Mycenaeans and Minoans
Mycenaeans planted colonies in the eastern Mediterranean, and conquered Knossos in 1450 BCE
1952 Michael Ventris deciphered Mycenaean script – Linear B – an early form of Greek
Most Mycenaeans tenant farmers who lived in villages ruled by nobles, who were under the control of the king
Kings collected tributes of grain, wine and olive oil; monopolized Mycenaean trade which ranged across the eastern Mediterranean
Perhaps for commercial reasons Mycenaeans launched expedition to Troy in 1250, to eliminate a powerful rival
Minoan culture was weakened by the eruption of the volcanic island of Thera (Santorini, above) and the massive tidal wave that struck Knossos in c

12. Troy, and Homer’s Iliad
Troy occupied a strategic location on the strait between the Black Sea and the Aegean (Hellespont) - controlled sea and land trade routes
Most historians believed Troy to be a mythical city (invented by the Greek poet Homer) – but Schliemann believed it to be real
He excavated Troy from 1870 and found 9 buried cities one on top of each other
He believed Troy II to be Homer’s Troy, but it has since been dated to 2200 BCE, far too early for the Trojan Wars. Troy VI or VII are more likely candidates
Homer’s cause of the war was the abduction of Helen, Queen of Sparta, by the Trojan prince Paris. The city was besieged by the Achaeans for 10 years, before finally falling to them through the ruse of the ‘wooden horse’
Achilles slays Pentheseleia
Ruins of Troy IX

13. Troy: Archaeological Strata

14. PART TWO: Classical Greek Civilization (1150-350 BCE)
So, from c.1150 a new wave of invaders with iron weapons destroyed Mycenaean strongholds. (Linear B records show military emergency)
The next four centuries ( ) are
characterized as the ‘Greek Dark Ages’,
resulting in depopulation and destruction of
Mycenaean civilization
But in its wake a new civilization emerged:
‘Hellenic’ (from the goddess Hellen who
brought the first humans to Greece)
Ancient and modern Greeks have all called
their country ‘Hellas’ ever since

15. Greek Geography
Mainland Greece a peninsula about the size of Maine with many mountain ranges
Internal communication difficult - independent and isolated city-states emerged, reluctant to unite into a single state
West coast mountains fall straight into the sea - few harbors. Other parts of the coast provide many natural harbors
The lower isthmus – the Peloponnesus –
is almost an island. (Peloponnesus =
Pelop’s Island)
Indented coastline and many islands
stimulated seagoing trade
Lack of arable land forced the Greeks
to establish colonies abroad
to grow food

16. The Homeric Age
Our knowledge of Dark Ages comes from the Homeric epics, c.750
Was a single blind Ionian poet responsible for the Iliad and Odyssey, or several bards?
They provide important information about Mycenaean civilization, but more particularly about Homer’s own time of soon after 800 BCE
An age of warfare and heroes. For glory men would endure hardship, struggle and death. The king was a war leader, first amongst equals
Noble women managed the estates while the men were at war. Society was aristocratic, although commoners had some political rights through a popular assembly
Surviving fragments of the oldest
known text of the Illiad

17. Evolution of the Polis In the absence of a centralized state
or empire, local institutions took the
lead in restoring order to Greece
The most important institution that emerged late in the ‘Dark Ages’ was the polis or city-state
The term polis referred specifically to a fortified citadel that offered refuge for local communities in times of conflict
These sites began to attract increasing populations, became lively commercial centers, took on an increasing urban character, and extended their authority over surrounding regions
They levied taxes on their hinterlands and extracted a proportion of agricultural surplus to support urban populations
From c. 800 BCE many poleis had become bustling city-states that functioned as the principal centers of Greek society
Remains of Greek polis, Black Sea Colony

18. From Oligarchy to Tyranny
8th C Poet Hesiod
By the mid-8th century, nobles had taken over government in most city states, leading to an ‘age of aristocracy’ (government by the best) or ‘oligarchy’ (government by the few)
Nobles abolished assemblies - commoners reduced to serfdom (read Hesiod’s Works and Days c700 BCE on this)
By 600 colonization, trade and coinage led to the emergence of a middle class
Cities built manufacturing plants for making export goods like pottery, textiles and wine

19. Greek Colonies
Remains of Greek colony in Spain
Between 800 and 700 BCE increasing populations in the poleis strained the resources available in the rocky Greek peninsula
Many commoners migrated overseas; nobles used colonization as a safety valve against political uprising
More than 400 Greek colonies were established all over the Mediterranean and Black Seas between 750 and 550, including Spain, France, Italy (Naples = Neapolis = ‘new polis’) and Egypt
Greek colonization facilitated commercial and cultural exchange between peoples of the Mediterranean and Black Seas; spread the Greek language; and quickened and deepened the tempo of social and political life throughout the region

20. Political Revolution
Despite using the safety-valve of colonization,
political unrest continued to ferment in the
mainland poleis
The commoners and the new middle class
resented being controlled by oligarchs or aristocrats
After 650 there was a series of political revolutions - tyrants (one who ‘usurps power’) seized power in many city-states, supported by the poor and middle class
Tyrants distributed some land to the poor, promoted commerce, and aided economic development
One of the reforms instituted by tyrants was to make middle-class citizens part of a new heavily-armed military force – the hoplite phalanx
Tyrant of Melos

21. Athens to Solon (560 BCE)
Athens and Sparta, the two most powerful Greek city-states, had very different histories and cultures
In 7th Athens nobles reigned; popular assembly marginalized and king’s power replaced by nine magistrates called archons (rulers)
Small farmers and the poor suffered - became landless or in debt slavery
The Athenians ultimately sought to relieve this social strain by establishing more democratic forms of government
The nobles agreed to political reform, and eventually adopted a compromise put forward by the aristocrat Solon

22. Solon: Archon of Athens
Solon sole archon in sensible reforms:
Lower class debt cancelled; debt slavery banned; membership of the ruling council based on wealth, not birth
To stimulate trade and industry granted citizenship to foreign artisans and merchants; encouraged intensive production and export of wine and olive oil
Solon
Greek wine pitcher, Rhodes. 7th C BCE

23. Tyranny and Reform
Not all were happy with Solon’s reforms; political unrest led to anarchy before Pisistratus seized power as a tyrant in 560
His reforms were more satisfactory to both the poor and nobility; his patronage of the arts stimulated Athenian culture
Sons ruled as brutal tyrants before the noble Cleisthenes seized power
Cleisthenes reforms (508 and 502) reduced the power of the nobles, created 10 new tribes, gave the popular assembly the right to pass laws, and set up a new democratic Council of 500, elected by lots
By 500 BCE the Athenian city-state had established the most democratic government so far seen in human history
Voting in Athens: Artists impression
From National Geographic, 1944

24. Sparta to 500 BCE - Helots
Sparta was located in a fertile region of the Peloponnesus
As their population expanded during the 8th and 7th Centuries, the Spartans progressively extended their control over the Peloponnesus
In extending their control, and to solve the problem of overpopulation, they reduced the status of their neighbors the Messenians, forcing them into slavery (they were called helots)
Their role was to provide free agricultural labor and keep Sparta supplied with food
By the 6th Century the helots probably outnumbered Spartan citizens by 10 to 1
As a result, Spartans faced the constant threat of rebellion, so devoted most of their resources to maintaining a powerful and disciplined military

25. Spartan Society
Males devoted themselves to rigorous military training – Sparta was effectively a totalitarian state
Sickly boys abandoned at birth; at the age of 7 they were placed in the charge of harsh state educators. At 20 they enrolled in the army and lived in barracks. They were allowed to marry at 30 (although could only visit their wives at night) and retired at 60
Sparta allied with other militarized oligarchies in the Peloponnesus, forming a powerful alliance in southern Greece
Spartan soldiers

26. Spartan Women
Spartans prescribed vigorous physical exercise for girls in the hope they would bear strong children
Thus Spartan women were highly trained and very fit
They wore short revealing tunics (or went naked) and encouraged the military ethos of the state
19th Century Artists Impression of Spartan Women in Training

27. As the men headed off to battle, the Spartan women shouted: ‘Come back bearing your shield, or being carried on it’!
sparta

28. The Persian Wars
Successful Greek colonies on the Ionian coast (Turkey today)
When Persia expanded its empire mid-6th century BCE, they took over Ionia
Ionian city-states revolted in 499 and appealed for help. Athens sent 20 ships but revolt was crushed; Persians furious with Athenians for interfering
In 490 Persian king Darius sent 20,000 troops across the Aegean, to force the Athenians to accept a pro-Persian tyrant.
Small Athenian army defeated the Persian force on the plains of Marathon, killing 6400 of the enemy and losing only 192
Darius I – King
of Persia
www2.sunnyfolk.edu

29. Second Persian Invasion – 480 BCE
10 years later King Xerxes decided to attack Greece to avenge the loss at Marathon
He dispatched a massive force of perhaps 100,000 troops and a fleet of 1000 ships
This was possibly the largest force ever assembled to this point in human history
The Persian army crossed the swift-flowing Hellespont on two pontoon bridges (an extraordinary feat) and marched down the coast

30. Persian Defeat
300 Spartans delayed the massive army for three days at a narrow pass at Thermopylae
Spartans all died and were immortalized for their courage
Persians sacked Athens but at the Battle of Salamis the Athenian navy of 200 destroyed the Persian fleet of 350, and the Persians were driven out of Greece
Spartans prepare for battle at Thermopylae
Athenian ships at the
Battle of Salamis

31. Athenian Dominance of the Greek World
Athens emerged as leader of the Greek world, and during the ensuing ‘Golden Age of Greece’ achieved the fullest development of its democracy
Under Pericles ( BCE) Athens governed by a board of ten elected generals
The success or otherwise of their policies ensured re-election by the popular assembly. Even the poorest citizens participated in government
Pericles wielded enormous personal influence in a government with hundreds of officeholders
Pericles
ball.tcnj.edu/pols270

32. Athenian Culture: Role of Women
But despite democracy, women, slaves and resident aliens could not vote
Women were the property of their husbands; could not own property
Wife’s function was to bear children, manage the household and disappear when her husband entertained friends
Marriages were arranged – men at age 30, women about 15 – and families kept small by infanticide of unwanted female babies
Athenian woman making wool
5th C BCE

33. Homosexuality
Homosexuality an acceptable social practice for Athenian men, between pre-pubescent boys and mature men
Particularly common amongst soldiers
If homosexuality continued past the age when men were expected to marry (i.e. age 30) it was frowned upon, as was homosexual prostitution
Achilles bandaging Patrocolus

34. Slavery
Slavery also common – 1 in 4 Athenians were slaves brought to Athens by slave dealers, to work the fields in small gangs, or learn a trade
Some Greeks argued against slavery, but most agreed with Aristotle that non-Greeks were incapable of human reason and needed the guidance of a Greek master
Slaves entertaining and
bringing food

35. Athenian Imperialism
After the defeat of Persia, Athens formed the defensive Delian League, but members began to resent having to make contributions that seemed to benefit only Athens
Other Greeks states (particularly the Spartan league) began to view Athens as a tyrant city
Pericles justified Athenian imperialism by saying it brought freedom from fear to the Greek world
Athenian imperialism and Spartan resentment were responsible for a conflict that brought to an end the Golden Age of Greece – the Peloponnesian War

36. The Peloponnesian War (431-404) - First Phase
Tension between Sparta and Athenian led to war, which Sparta declared in 431
Much of our knowledge comes from a history written by one of its participants Thucydides: The Peloponnesian War
In the second year of the war plague broke out in Athens and killed a third of the population (including Pericles)
Eight more years of indecisive conflict led to a compromise peace in 421
Pericles’ successors tried to force a neutral island Melos to join the Athenian Empire; when they refused executed all the men and sold the women and children into slavery
Plague Strikes Athens

37. Peloponnesian War: Second Phase
War resumed in 415 with a disastrous Athenian expedition against Syracuse in Sicily: two Athenian fleets destroyed
War dragged on until last Athenian fleet destroyed by Sparta so Athens surrendered
In the aftermath Spartan oligarchy replaced democracy all over Greece, leading to anarchy
Economy and society collapsed; intellectuals lost faith in democracy, looking for a benevolent tyrant who would reunify Greek civilization.
They found him in Philip the King of Macedonia
homepages.uc.edu
Spartans defeat Athenians in Sicily

38. PART THREE – Alexander and the Hellenistic Era
Macedonia (north of Greece): hardy peasants, powerful nobles and a young and brilliant king, Philip II ( )
Philip appreciated Greek culture; hoped to win glory for Macedonia
Macedonian army formidable (cavalry and hoplite infantry)
Philip dominated the weakened Greek city-states (Battle of Chaeronea in 358)
Greeks allowed to retain self-government, but swore to supply Philip with men and tribute
Philip turned his attention to Persia but was assassinated in 336, leaving the campaign against Persia as a legacy to his brilliant son, Alexander
Phillip II of Macedon

39. Alexander the Great
20-year old Alexander gained support of the nobles; demanded that of the Greeks. When Thebes rebelled he crushed the city, quelling any further resistance
Alexander one of the most remarkable individuals in history. He was of average height and looks, but a gifted athlete, well-educated and a charismatic leader
Tutored by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, and reveled in the heroes of the Iliad. He was a new Achilles waging war against the Persian barbarians
Mosaic from Pompeii, House of the Faun,
Naples Archaeological Museum

40. Alexander Defeats the Persians
Macedonian Phalanx
Set out in 334 on one of the greatest campaigns of conquest in history
He had only 35,000 Macedonian and Greek soldiers but quickly conquered Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine
Defeated the Persians in two great battles and marched into Egypt, where he was proclaimed as a pharaoh – a living ‘god-king’
Faced the Persian king Darius III in a third monumental battle (Gaugamela in 331)
Macedonians victorious and Darius was assassinated by his relative as the Persians fled

41. Alexander Defeats Darius at the Battle of Gaugamela
Mosaic from Pompeii, House of the Faun, Naples Archaeological Museum

42. Alexander Campaigns into India
Not content, Alexander led his men further and further east, eventually conquering Afghanistan and parts of modern Pakistan and northern India
Weary soldiers refused to go further (on the road for ten years) and reluctantly Alexander returned to Babylon, where he died of a mysterious illness in 323, at the age of 32
murugan.org/research

43. Alexander’s Personality and Administration
Alexander: ruthless conqueror and despot or farsighted visionary hoping to unite Eastern and Western cultures in a brotherhood of man?
Some policies attempted to promote unity between east and west (blended Greeks, Persians and Macedonians together in his army)
Founded 70 Greek cities throughout Central Asia, married two eastern princesses and encouraged his officers to take young foreign wives
He was a blend of romantic idealist and practical realist, representing the influences of his mother and father
Alexander ruled for only 13 years, but in many ways the Eurasian continent was never the same again
Young Iranian nomadic girl
Alexander’s Personality and Administration

44. Alexander’s Empire
faq.macedonia.org

45. Division of Alexander’s Empire
With the conquest of West and Central Asia, a new era in Greek history began – the Hellenistic Era (‘Greek-like’)
Alexander’s generals divided empire into three major Hellenistic kingdoms, which lasted until the Romans conquered most of the region in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE
Egypt ruled by Alexander’s friend Ptolemy and his successors, who ruled as divine pharaohs
Central and much of western Asia (including much of the former Persian Empire) ruled with great difficulty by Seleucus and his dynasty, who ruled as semi-divine ‘saviors’ and ‘benefactors’
Macedonia and Greece ruled by the descendants of Antigonus, who ruled Macedonian-style as kings selected by the army

46. Collapse of the Empire
Because of revolts, civil war and dynastic squabbles, kingdoms eventually began to crumble
Macedonia lost control of Greece by 250 BCE
(Constitutions written by the newly-independent Achaean and Aetolian leagues influenced the authors of the United States Constitution)
Eastern portions of the Seleucid Empire – Parthia, Bactria and India – also gained independence
Egypt annexed by Rome in 30 BCE, when last remaining ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (Cleopatra) committed suicide

47. Hellenistic Economy
Thousands of Greeks moved east and colonized much of Western and Central Asia
Rising prices hurt the poor; middle class became powerful and wealthy
By 3rd Century BCE the center of trade had shifted from Greece to West Asia, particularly Antioch in Syria, and Alexandria in Egypt
Greek Coins: Trade prospered between East and West helped by a uniform coinage
ancientcoins.ca/greek

48. Hellenistic Economy: Map
go.hrw.com/hrw.nd/gohrw

49. Hellenistic Society
Alexandria (founded by Alexander) huge multi-cultural city, with a vast harbor and great lighthouse 370 feet high – one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
Hellenistic Age a time of economic expansion, cosmopolitanism and striking intellectual achievement, and of the wide diffusion of Greek culture
Eventually the Greek world was incorporated into the Roman Empire, resulting in the transfer of Greek civilization to Rome and later European culture, one of the most significant legacies in the history of the western world
Artist’s impression of the
great lighthouse at Alexandria

50. Part Four: Greek Politics and Philosophy
The political framework of the Greek city-states rested on a relatively wide base of power sharing
In the growth of Athenian democracy the role of Solon was critical – he cancelled debt slavery and guaranteed the personal freedom of even the humblest citizen
This crystallized the concept of fundamental, inalienable civil rights without which citizenship would be useless
His opening of offices to men of talent marked the end of the nobility’s stranglehold on government (although not its dominance)
Ultimately, however, the legacy of Greece to western civilization has been as much cultural and intellectual as political

51. Greek Ideas About the World
Greek philosophy, religion, literature and art were driven by a need to discover order and meaning in nature and human life
This resulted in the emergence of an extraordinary religious view, and exceptional achievements in philosophy, literature, science and the visual arts
The underlying key to happiness was moderation and self-control; its opposite was pride and unbridled ambition (hubris) which led to retribution (nemesis)
Greek Ideas About the World
Husband and Wife, Athens, 5th C

52. Socrates (470-399) ‘The unexamined life is not worth knowing’
The philosopher Socrates believed that only by asking meaningful questions and subjecting the answers to logical analysis could agreement be reached about ethical and moral behavior
Questioned friends and strangers about everything – he was the ‘midwife assisting in the birth of correct ideas’
‘The unexamined life is not worth knowing’
Human virtue and excellence based on intellectual activity and knowledge. Ignorance was evil
Socrates was eventually arrested as a subversive radical and condemned to death. He happily poisoned himself, accepting his fate without bitterness

53. Socratic Philosophy: Summary
Socrates was concerned with universal definitions, the attaining of fixed concepts
He used the ‘dialectic’ (conversation) method, which proceeded from less accurate to more accurate definitions; or from a particular to a universal definition
His aim was to discover truth with a view to the ‘good life’: in order to act well, one must know what the ‘good life’ is
His interest was predominantly ethical to persuade every man that their job was to seek virtue and wisdom
Knowledge and virtue are the same – the wise man who knows what is right will also do what is right

54. Plato ( )
Socrates most famous disciple was Plato - established a school in the Athenian suburb of Akademia
Believed that truth existed in the realm of thought, a semi-spiritual world of forms and ideas, outside of the material world
Beauty and good of the real world were only imperfect reflections of the eternal ideas and forms that existed in this spiritual world (like shadows on the wall of a cave)
Plato believed the purpose of life was to discover the eternal ideas and absolute truths through reason
myhero.com/images/writer

55. Plato’s Theory of Knowledge
Knowledge (the basis of ethical conduct) is not just self-perception, but of eternal values which are not subject to the shifts of self-perception
Knowledge is not simply ‘True Judgment’, because a judgment may be true without the fact of its truth involving knowledge
True knowledge is attainable; it must be both infallible and knowledge of the real
Knowledge of the highest universal principle will be the highest kind of knowledge; knowledge of the particular is the lowest kind

56. Major Works of Plato
The Republic – a treatise on ethics and politics (the two are virtually indistinguishable in Plato’s philosophy)
The Symposium – at a cultured dinner party in Athens, leading thinkers discuss the meaning of love. Socrates believes love is a search for that which we lack. Progresses from love of appearances (physical beauty), to love of belief (soul), to love of thought (beautiful ideas), to knowledge (love of beauty itself)
The Apology, Crito and Phaedo – a trilogy
about the trial and death of Socrates.
Socrates attempts to prove the possibility
of immortality by arguing that the soul is
immortal because it can perceive and be
one with goodness, beauty and truth.
These values are eternal, and the mind’s
ability to have knowledge of these eternal
values argues for its immortality

57. Aristotle ( )
Plato’s greatest pupil was Aristotle; established his own school in Athens (Lyceum). Also tutor to Alexander
Disagreed with Plato on the nature of truth - ideas did not exist apart from the material world
Knowledge consisted of the painstaking collection and organization of facts about reality; the Lyceum became the center for the analysis of data from many branches of learning
Aristotle’s interests incredibly widespread – biology, mathematics, astronomy, physics, literature, rhetoric, logic, politics, ethics and metaphysics
Plato (left) and his pupil
Aristotle
web.sbu.edu/vitality/faculty

58. Aristotelian Philosophical Interests
Logic: truth is only attainable from sound principles worked out in a systematic, logical fashion
Physics: studies of nature based on observations of the natural world
Metaphysics: the nature of being; what it means to be
Biology: studies on the origin, evolution, physiology and motion of animals
Psychology: problems of the human psyche, the function of the soul, sense, memory, dreams, youth and old age, life and death
Ethics: study of , virtue, good character, human behavior
Esthetics: artistic creativity and its role in society

59. Aristotle: Most Influential Works
The Metaphysics: The twin elements of Change and Permanence coexist in every possible natural event. The formal (changing state) and Material (permanent state) are both present at all times
The Ethics: Humans reveal what they are through what they do; human character must therefore be judged through a study of action in terms of self-perception
The Poetics: First attempt in history to analyze the meaning of the beautiful based on an individual work of art, free from ethical principles. ‘Art is an imitation of nature’ (or rather ‘art brings to completion that which nature is unable to finish’)

60. Greek Philosophy: Conclusion
Before the Greeks, humans were primarily oriented towards death, building vast monuments in honor of death (ziggurats, pyramids etc; life dominated by spirits, priests, gods)
But to the Greeks life was the most significant fact – and human life the greatest wonder on earth
This explains their love of sport and games (Olympics), appreciation of the form of the human body (art) and their philosophy
The Greeks were the first to argue that the world and universe were knowable through logic and reason – mankind’s power of reason was the key to our understanding of our place in the scheme of things, of the meaning of life
This dichotomy between understanding the universe as an entity created by a god or gods, and therefore knowable only through submission to gods, or of the ability of humans to understand through reason and rational logic, has remained the defining eternal question faced by human beings ever since