1. Chapter 16 Bulk Forming Processes (Part 2) Extrusion & Drawing EIN Manufacturing Processes Spring 2012 1

2. 16.6 Extrusion
Metal is compressed and forced to flow through a shaped die to form a product with a constant cross section
A ram advances from one end of the die and causes the metal to flow plastically through the die
Pressing ram
Figure Direct extrusion schematic showing the various equipment components. (Courtesy of Danieli Wean United, Cranberry Township, PA.)

3. 16.6 Extrusion
Metal is compressed and forced to flow through a shaped die to form a product with a constant cross section
A ram advances from one end of the die and causes the metal to flow plastically through the die
Pressing ram
Figure Direct extrusion schematic showing the various equipment components. (Courtesy of Danieli Wean United, Cranberry Township, PA.)

4. Extrusion Definition: Purpose:
Process of forcing a billet through a die above its elastic limit, taking shape of the opening.
Purpose:
To reduce its cross-section or to produce a solid or hollow cross section.
Analogy: “Like squeezing toothpaste out of a tube”.

5. Extrusion Extruded products always have a constant cross- section.
It can be a semi-continuous or a batch process.
Extrusions can be cut into lengths to become discrete parts like gears, brackets, etc.
A billet can also extruded individually in a chamber, and produces discrete parts.
Typical products: railings, tubing, structural shapes, etc.

6. Typical Extruded Products
Figure Typical shapes produced by extrusion. (Left) Aluminum products. (Courtesy of Aluminum Company of America, Pittsburgh, PA.) (Right) Steel products. (Courtesy of Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA.)

7. Extrusion
Can be performed at elevated temperatures or room temperatures, depending on material ductility.
Commonly extruded materials include aluminum, magnesium (low yield strength materials), copper, and lead.
Steels and nickel based alloys are far more difficult to extrude (high yield strength materials).
Lubricants are essential to extrude high strength alloys to avoid metal-to-metal contact through the process.

8. Advantages of Extrusion
Many shapes can be produced that are not possible with rolling
No draft is required
Amount of reduction in a single step is only limited by the equipment, not the material or the design
Dies are relatively inexpensive
Small quantities of a desired shape can be produced economically

9. Extrusion Methods Methods of extrusion:
Hot extrusion is usually done by either the direct or indirect methods.
Direct extrusion
Solid ram drives the entire billet to and through a stationary die
Must provide additional power to overcome friction between billet surface and die walls

10. Extrusion Methods Indirect extrusion
A hollow ram pushes the die back through a stationary, confined billet
No relative motion and no friction between billet and die walls.
Lower forces required, can extrude longer billets.
More complex process, more expensive equipment required.

11. Extrusion Methods
Figure Direct and indirect extrusion. In direct extrusion, the ram and billet both move and friction between the billet and the chamber opposes forward motion. For indirect extrusion, the billet is stationary. There is no billet-chamber friction, since there is no relative motion.

12. Variables in Extrusion
Die Angle
Extrusion Ratio R (Ab / Af): where Ab and Af are billet and extruded product cross section’s areas.
Billet Temperature
Ram Velocity
Type of Lubricant used.

13. Variables in Extrusion

14. Extrusion Parameters defining the extruded shape:
CCD (Circumscribing Diameter):
Diameter of the smallest circle into which the extruded cross section can fit.
Shape Factor = Perimeter / Cross-Area:
the larger the shape factor, the more complex the part.

15. Variables in Direct Extrusion
Fig : Process variables in direct extrusion. The die angle, reduction in cross-section, extrusion speed, billet temperature, and lubrication all affect the extrusion pressure.
Fig : Method of determining the circumscribing-circle diameter (CCD) of an extruded cross-section.

16. Extrusion Parameters defining the extruded shape
Example of Shape Factors between circle and square shapes:
Shape factor of a circle = (p .D)/ (0.25p .D2) = 4/D, and
shape factor of square = 4 a/a2 =4/a .
If areas of the circle and the square are the same: Ac = As ,
then a2 = (p .D2)/4 ,
so a = D, or D = a
shape factor of square = 4a/a2 = 4/a
= 4/(0.8862D) = of shape factor of circle

17. Extrusion Parameters defining the extruded shape:
Reduction Ratio R = Ab/Ap
Where, Ab – cross section area of starting billet stock
Ap – across section area of extruded product
For a cylinder-to-cylinder extrusion,
the area of starting cylinder: Ab = (p .Db2)/4 , and
the area of extruded cylinder: Ap = (p .Dp2)/4 .
R = Ab/Ap = (0.25p .Db2)/ (0.25p .Dp2) = (Db/Dp)2
if (Db/Dp) = 4, then R = 16

18. Extrusion Practices Usually billets less than 25’ in length.
CCD ranges from ¼” to 40”.
Typical values for R range between 10 and 100.
Ram speeds up to 100 ft/min, with lower speeds for the most common extruded alloys.
Dimensional tolerances (+/- 0.01” to +/- 0.1”) increase with cross section.

19. Extrusion Force Factors for determining extrusion force:
billet strength, extrusion ratio, friction between billet and die surfaces, temperature, and extrusion speed.
Estimation of Force required:
F = Ab k ln (Ab/Af)
k = extrusion constant
Ab, Af billet and extruded product cross section areas

20. Extrusion Constant K:
Fig : Extrusion constant k for various metals at different temperatures

21. Example for calculation Extrusion Force
Given: a brass round billet is extruded at deg. F. Billet diam. = 5” Extrusion Diam. = 2”.
Find: Required force.
Assumptions: friction is negligible.
Solution: Find k from Fig for brass : 30,000 psi at 1250 deg. F.
F = p (2.5) 2 (30,000) ln [(p (2.5) 2) / (p (1.0) 2)]
= 1.08 x 106 lb = 490 tons.

22. Forces in Extrusion
Lubrication is important to reduce friction and act as a heat barrier
Metal flow in extrusion
Flow can be complex
Surface cracks, interior cracks and flow-related cracks need to be monitored
Process control is important
Figure Diagram of the ram force versus ram position for both direct and indirect extrusion of the same product. The area under the curve corresponds to the amount of work (force x distance) performed. The difference between the two curves is attributed to billet-chamber friction.

23. Lubrication
Essential in extrusion to improve die life, reduce extrusion forces/temperature, improve surface finish, particularly in hot extrusion.
An acceptable lubricant is expected to reduce friction and act as a barrier to heat transfer at all stages of the process.

24. Metal Flow Quite complex.
Impact on quality and mechanical properties of product: must not overlook to prevent defects.
Extruded products have elongated grain structure.
Metal at center passes through die w/little distortion
Metal near surface undergoes considerable shearing.
In the direct extrusion, Friction between moving billet and stationary chamber walls impedes surface flow.
If the surface regions of billet undergo excessive cooling, surface deformation is further impedes, often leading to the surface cracks.

25. Extrusion of Hollow Shapes
Mandrels may be used to produce hollow shapes or shapes with multiple longitudinal cavities
Figure Two methods of extruding hollow shapes using internal mandrels. In part (a) the mandrel and ram have independent motions; in part (b) they move as a single unit.

26. Extrusion Methods In Hydrostatic Extrusion:
The chamber, which is larger than the billet, is filled with a fluid.
The fluid is compressed with the ram and pushes the billet forward.
Benefit: no friction to overcome along sides of chamber.

27. Hydrostatic Extrusion
High-pressure fluid surrounds the workpiece and applies the force to execute extrusion
Billet-chamber friction is eliminated
High efficiency process
Temperatures are limited because the fluid acts as a heat sink
Seals must be designed to keep the fluid from leaking
Figure Comparison of conventional (left) and hydrostatic (right) extrusion. Note the addition of the pressurizing fluid and the O-ring and miter-ring seals on both the die and ram.

28. Extrusion Methods Conform process
Continuous feedstock is fed into a grooved wheel and is driven by surface friction into a chamber created by a mating die segment
The material upsets to conform to the chamber
Feedstock can be solid, metal powder, punchouts, or chips
Metallic and nonmetallic powders can be intimately mixed

29. Continuous Extrusion
Figure Cross-sectional schematic of the Conform continuous extrusion process. The material upsets at the abutment and extrudes. Section x-x shows the material in the shoe.

30. Extrusion can be Hot or Cold
Hot Extrusion
Takes place at elevated temperatures.
Used in metals that have low ductility at room temperature.
Need to pre-heat dies to prolong die life and reduce billet cooling.
Hot working tends to develop an oxide film on the outside of the work unless done in an inert environment.
Solution:
place smaller-diameter dummy block ahead of ram before the billet. A layer of oxidized material is then left in the chamber, and is later removed and final part is free of oxides.

31. Extrusion can be Hot or Cold
Cold Extrusion (also know as Impact Extrusion)
Designated as cold when combined with other forging operations.
Key variables:
slug dimensions
material property, and
lubrication
Diameters up to 6” and thin walls can be made.
Collapsible tubes can be made this way (toothpaste tubes).

32. Advantages Cold vs. Hot Extrusion
Better mechanical properties due to work- hardening.
Good dimensional tolerances & surface finish.
No need to heat billet.
Competitive production rates & costs.
Hot:
Larger variety of materials.
Less forces required.
Better material flow.

33. Guidelines for Die Design
Avoid sharp corners
Have similarly sized voids if possible.
Have even thickness in walls if possible.
General idea is to favor even flow.

34. Defects in Extrusions Surface Cracking / Tearing
Occurs with high friction or speed.
Can also occur with sticking of billet material on die land.
Material sticks, pressure increases, product stops and starts to move again.
This produces circumferential cracks on surface, similar to a bamboo stem. (referred to as bambooing).

35. Defects in Extrusions Internal Cracking
Center of extrusion tends to develop cracks of various shapes.
Center, center-burst, and arrowhead
Center cracking:
Increases with increasing die angle.
Increases with impurities.
Decreases with increasing R and friction.

36. 16.7 Wire, Rod, and Tube Drawing
Reduce the cross section of a material by pulling it through a die
Similar to extrusion, but the force is tensile
Figure Cold-drawing smaller tubing from larger tubing. The die sets the outer dimension while the stationary mandrel sizes the inner diameter.
Figure Schematic drawing of the rod-or bar-drawing process.

37. Drawing Definition Variables:
Cross section of a round rod / wire is reduced by pulling it through a die.
Variables:
Die Angle, Area Deduction Ratio R (Ab / Af) , Friction between die and workpiece, drawing speed.
“There is an optimum angle at which the drawing force is minimum” for a given diameter reduction and friction parameter.

38. Drawing Estimation of Drawing Force required: F = Yavg Af ln (A0/Af)
Yavg = average true stress of material in the die gap.
Assumptions for the formular: no friction.

39. Drawing Work has to be done to overcome friction.
Force increases with increasing friction.
Cannot increase force too much, or material will reach yield stress.
Maximum reduction in cross-sectional area per pass = 63%.

40. Drawing Die Design Die angles range from 6 to 15 degrees.
Two angles are typically present in a die:
Entering angle
Approach angle
Bearing Surface (land): sets final diameter.
Back relief angle

41. Figure Cross section through a typical carbide wire-drawing die showing the characteristic regions of the contour.
Figure Schematic of a multistation synchronized wire-drawing machine. To prevent accumulation or breakage, it is necessary to ensure that the same volume of material passes through each station in a given time. The loops around the sheaves between the stations use wire tensions and feedback electronics to provide the necessary speed control.

42. Figure Cross section through a typical carbide wire-drawing die showing the characteristic regions of the contour.
Figure Schematic of a multistation synchronized wire-drawing machine. To prevent accumulation or breakage, it is necessary to ensure that the same volume of material passes through each station in a given time. The loops around the sheaves between the stations use wire tensions and feedback electronics to provide the necessary speed control.

43. Defects in Drawing Center cracking. Seams (folds in the material)
Residual stresses in cold-drawn products.
If % reduction is small:
(Compressive at surface / Tensile at Center)
If % reduction is larger, opposite occurs:
(not desirable- can cause stress corrosion cracking.)

44. Tube and Wire Drawing Tube sinking does not use a mandrel
Internal diameter precision is sacrificed for cost and a floating plug is used
Figure (Above) Tube drawing with a floating plug.
Figure Schematic of wire drawing with a rotating draw block. The rotating motor on the draw block provides a continuous pull on the incoming wire.

45. 16.8 Cold Forming, Cold Forging, and Impact Extrusion
Slugs of material are squeezed into or extruded from shaped die cavities to produce finished parts of precise shape and size
Cold heading is a form of upset forging
Used to make the enlarged sections on the ends of rod or wire (i.e. heads of nails, bolts, etc.)
Figure Typical steps in a shearing and cold-heading operation.

46. Impact Extrusion
A metal slug is positioned in a die cavity where it is struck by a single blow
Metal may flow forward, backward or some combination
The punch controls the inside shape while the die controls the exterior shape
Figure Backward and forward extrusion with open and closed dies.

47. Cold Extrusion
Figure (a) Reverse (b) forward (c) combined forms of cold extrusion. (Courtesy the Aluminum Association, Arlington, VA.)
Figure (Right) Steps in the forming of a bolt by cold extrusion, cold heading, and thread rolling. (Courtesy of National Machinery Co. Tiffin, OH.)

48. Figure 16-47 Typical parts made by upsetting and related operations
Figure Typical parts made by upsetting and related operations. (Courtesy of National Machinery Co., Tiffin, OH.)
Figure Cold-forming sequence involving cutoff, squaring, two extrusions, an upset, and a trimming operation. Also shown are the finished part and the trimmed scrap. (Courtesy of National Machinery Co., Tiffin, OH.)

49. Figure 16-47 Typical parts made by upsetting and related operations
Figure Typical parts made by upsetting and related operations. (Courtesy of National Machinery Co., Tiffin, OH.)
Figure Cold-forming sequence involving cutoff, squaring, two extrusions, an upset, and a trimming operation. Also shown are the finished part and the trimmed scrap. (Courtesy of National Machinery Co., Tiffin, OH.)

50. 16.9 Piercing
Thick-walled seamless tubing can be made by rotary piercing
Heated billet is fed into the gap between two large, convex-tapered rolls
Forces the billet to deform into a rotating ellipse
Figure (Left) Principle of the Mannesmann process of producing seamless tubing. (Courtesy of American Brass Company, Cleveland, OH.) (Right) Mechanism of crack formation in the Mannesmann process.

51. 16.10 Other Squeezing Processes
Roll extrusion- thin walled cylinders are produced from thicker-wall cylinders
Sizing-involves squeezing all or select regions of products to achieve a thickness or enhance dimensional precision
Riveting- permanently joins sheets or plates of material by forming an expanded head on the shank end of a fastener
Staking-permanently joins parts together when a segment of one part protrudes through a hole in the other

52. Other Squeezing Processes
Figure The roll-extrusion process: (a) with internal rollers expanding the inner diameter; (b) with external rollers reducing the outer diameter.
Figure Joining components by riveting.
Figure Permanently attaching a shaft to a plate by staking.

53. Other Squeezing Operations
Coining- cold squeezing of metal while all of the surfaces are confined within a set of dies
Hubbing- plastically forms recessed cavities in a workpiece
Figure The coining process.
Figure Hubbing a die block in a hydraulic press. Inset shows close-up of the hardened hub and the impression in the die block. The die block is contained in a reinforcing ring. The upper surface of the die block is then machined flat to remove the bulged metal.

54. Summary There are a variety of bulk deformation processes
The main processes are rolling, forging, extrusion, and drawing
Each has limits and advantages as to its capabilities
The correct process depends on the desired shape, surface finish, quantity, etc.

55. Homework Review questions (page 418): 40, 42, 45, 48
Problems (page 418 – 419):
2: a, b, c, d