1. REASON, FAITH, LANGUAGE & MEMORY in 8 slides

2. DEDUCTIVE REASONING & its limitations Deductive reasoning moves from the general to the specific. All dogs are mammals Chester is a dog. Therefore Chester is a mammal. A deductive argument is reliable only if it’s logically valid and if its premises are true. Invalid (illogical) structure results in fallacies (errors in reasoning). They are unethical and misleading. Deductive reasoning depends on inductive reasoning & on other WOKs (like sense perception) to get true premises.

3. INDUCTIVE REASONING & its limitations Inductive reasoning moves from the specific data to the general conclusion. Inductive reasoning relies on the coherence of data – all evidence fitting together. Limitations? Depends on sense perception/observations It relies on a limited number of examples. This can also result in fallacies (hasty generalization, irrelevant evidence, etc.) Generalizations can easily turn into stereotyping and prejudice. confirmation bias: people tend to select and look for evidence that confirms their expectations and prejudices.

4. FAITH & its limitations as a WOK Controversial due to it’s lack of evidence; can be seen as an obstacle to knowledge, contrasted with reason. Also defined as complete trust or confidence in someone or something – not necessarily spiritual. Instead of being inconsistent, faith & reason can be seen as working together. Faith (spiritual or not) can provide hope and motivation, even when reason or other WOKs fail… For many communities of people, faith is a key way in which they understand and explain the world – a key to their shared knowledge. Religious faith has undeniable historical & contemporary significance for morality and community building.

5. Language & its limitations as a WOK Language is one of the best ways we acquire shared knowledge. Some of its limitations: Ambiguity, vagueness, connotation, figurative language Language changes in context – as a reflection of culture & time; can also serve to isolate from other groups Knowledge “lost in translation” Language can be used to persuade and manipulate – advertising, propaganda, brainwashing, labeling, stereotyping…

6. Memory & its limitations as a WOK: The capacity of the mind to store and remember information Most of the knowledge we have is in the form of memory New knowledge is dependent on & influenced by memory Issues with memory: Other WOKs are used to provide initial knowledge; which ones create the most reliable or permanent memories? Its reliability varies a lot; unconscious transference Influenced by one’s brain function, personality, emotion, by other people, by imagination... It’s hard to apply the correspondence test, but can apply the coherence & pragmatic truth tests to memories Connected to identity (both personal or shared)

7. ARISTOTLE (384-322 BCE) A student of Plato & one of the most influential thinkers of all times. Invented many disciplines and terms still used today - ethics, physics, psychology, zoology, logic (deductive/inductive reasoning), etc. “All men by nature desire to know” – Aristotle Tutor to Alexander the Great “Plato is dear to me, but dearer still is the truth” Empiricism – experience is the basis of knowledge! We should keep our feet on the ground…

8. The true essence of a thing is not its matter, but its form and function; the real point of everything is what it does, what it is for… Everything changes & acquires a new form. In ethics, Aristotle developed the doctrine of the “golden mean” – moderation in all things – similar to the “Middle Way” in Buddhism – the way to achieve happiness & balance He was so influential for the next 2000 years, that all modern scientists & thinkers had to start by challenging his authority. For example – his geocentric theory was challenged by Galileo in 1600s, his idea that everything consisted of 4 elements (earth, water, air, fire) was challenged by 17 th century chemistry (Boyle).