1. Transistors
They are unidirectional current carrying devices with capability to control the current flowing through them
The switch current can be controlled by either current or voltage
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) control current by current
Field Effect Transistors (FET) control current by voltage
They can be used either as switches or as amplifiers

2. NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor
One N-P (Base Collector) diode one P-N (Base Emitter) diode

3. PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor
One P-N (Base Collector) diode one N-P (Base Emitter) diode

4. NPN BJT Current flow

5. BJT  and  From the previous figure iE = iB + iC Define  = iC / iE
Define  = iC / iB
Then  = iC / (iE –iC) =  /(1- )
Then iC =  iE ; iB = (1-) iE
Typically   100 for small signal BJTs (BJTs that
handle low power) operating in active region (region
where BJTs work as amplifiers)

6. BJT in Active Region Common Emitter(CE) Connection
Called CE because emitter is common to both VBB and VCC

7. BJT in Active Region (2) Base Emitter junction is forward biased
Base Collector junction is reverse biased
For a particular iB, iC is independent of RCC
transistor is acting as current controlled current source (iC is controlled by iB, and iC =  iB)
Since the base emitter junction is forward biased, from Shockley
equation

8. Early Effect and Early Voltage
As reverse-bias across collector-base junction increases, width of the collector-base depletion layer increases and width of the base decreases (base-width modulation).
In a practical BJT, output characteristics have a positive slope in forward-active region; collector current is not independent of vCE.
Early effect: When output characteristics are extrapolated back to point of zero iC, curves intersect (approximately) at a common point vCE = -VA which lies between 15 V and 150 V. (VA is named the Early voltage)
Simplified equations (including Early effect):
Chap 5 - 8

9. BJT in Active Region (3)
Normally the above equation is never used to calculate iC, iB
Since for all small signal transistors vBE  0.7. It is only useful for deriving the small signal characteristics of the BJT.
For example, for the CE connection, iB can be simply calculated as,
or by drawing load line on the base –emitter side

10. Deriving BJT Operating points in Active Region –An Example
In the CE Transistor circuit shown earlier VBB= 5V, RBB= k, RCC = 1 k, VCC = 10V. Find IB,IC,VCE, and the transistor power dissipation using the characteristics as shown below
By Applying KVL to the base emitter circuit iB
100 A 5V
vBE
By using this equation along with the iB / vBE characteristics of the base emitter junction, IB = 40 A

11. Deriving BJT Operating points in Active Region –An Example (2)
By Applying KVL to the collector emitter circuit iC
10 mA
20V
vCE
100 A
80 A
60 A
40 A
20 A
By using this equation along with the iC / vCE characteristics of the base collector junction, iC = 4 mA, VCE = 6V
Transistor power dissipation = VCEIC = 24 mW
We can also solve the problem without using the characteristics
if  and VBE values are known

12. BJT in Cutoff Region Under this condition iB= 0
As a result iC becomes negligibly small
Both base-emitter as well base-collector junctions may be reverse
biased
Under this condition the BJT can be treated as an off switch

13. BJT in Saturation Region
Under this condition iC / iB   in active region
Both base emitter as well as base collector junctions are forward
biased
VCE  0.2 V
Under this condition the BJT can be treated as an on switch

14. BJT in Saturation Region (2)
A BJT can enter saturation in the following ways (refer to the CE circuit)
For a particular value of iB, if we keep on increasing RCC
For a particular value of RCC, if we keep on increasing iB
For a particular value of iB, if we replace the transistor with one with higher 

15. BJT in Saturation Region – Example 1
In the CE Transistor circuit shown earlier VBB= 5V, RBB= k, RCC = 10 k, VCC = 10V. Find IB,IC,VCE, and the transistor power dissipation using the characteristics as shown below
Here even though IB is still 40 A; from the output characteristics, IC can be found to be only about 1mA and VCE  0.2V( VBC  0.5V or base collector junction is forward biased (how?)) iC
10 mA
20V
vCE
100 A
80 A
60 A
40 A
20 A
 = IC / IB = 1mA/40 A = 25 100

16. BJT in Saturation Region – Example 2
In the CE Transistor circuit shown earlier VBB= 5V, RBB= 43 k, RCC = 1 k, VCC = 10V. Find IB,IC,VCE, and the transistor power dissipation using the characteristics as shown below
Here IB is 100 A from the input characteristics; IC can be found to be
only about 9.5 mA from the output characteristics and VCE  0.5V(
VBC  0.2V or base collector junction is forward biased (how?))
 = IC / IB = 9.5 mA/100 A = 95  100
Transistor power dissipation = VCEIC  4.7 mW
Note: In this case the BJT is not in very hard saturation

17. BJT in Saturation Region – Example 2 (2)
Output Characteristics iC
20V
vCE
100 A
80 A
60 A
40 A
20 A iB
100 A 5V
vBE
10 mA
Input Characteristics

18. BJT in Saturation Region – Example 3
In the CE Transistor circuit shown earlier VBB= 5V, VBE = 0.7V RBB= k, RCC = 1 k, VCC = 10V,  = 400. Find IB,IC,VCE, and the transistor power dissipation using the characteristics as shown below
By Applying KVL to the base emitter circuit
Then IC = IB= 400*40 A = A
and VCE = VCC-RCC* IC = *1000 = -6V(?)
But VCE cannot become negative (since current can flow only from collector to emitter).
Hence the transistor is in saturation

19. BJT in Saturation Region – Example 3(2)
Hence VCE  0.2V
IC = (10 –0.2) /1 = 9.8 mA
Hence the operating  = 9.8 mA / 40 A = 245

20. BJT Operating Regions at a Glance (1)

21. BJT Operating Regions at a Glance (2)

22. BJT Large-signal (DC) model

23. BJT ‘Q’ Point (Bias Point)
Q point means Quiescent or Operating point
Very important for amplifiers because wrong ‘Q’ point selection increases amplifier distortion
Need to have a stable ‘Q’ point, meaning the the operating point should not be sensitive to variation to temperature or BJT , which can vary widely

24. Four Resistor bias Circuit for Stable ‘Q’ Point
By far best circuit for providing stable bias point

25. Analysis of 4 Resistor Bias Circuit

26. Analysis of 4 Resistor Bias Circuit (2)
Applying KVL to the base-emitter circuit of the Thevenized
Equivalent form
VB - IB RB -VBE - IE RE = (1)
Since IE = IB + IC = IB + IB= (1+ )IB (2)
Replacing IE by (1+ )IB in (1), we get
(3)
If we design (1+ )RE  RB (say (1+ )RE  100RB)
Then
(4)

27. Analysis of 4 Resistor Bias Circuit (3)
And
(for large )
(5)
Hence IC and IE become independent of !
Thus we can setup a Q-point independent of  which tends to
vary widely even within transistors of identical part number
(For example,  of 2N2222A, a NPN BJT can vary between
75 and 325 for IC = 1 mA and VCE = 10V)

28. 4 Resistor Bias Circuit -Example
A 2N2222A is connected as shown
with R1 = 6.8 k, R2 = 1 k, RC = 3.3 k,
RE = 1 k and VCC = 30V. Assume
VBE = 0.7V.
Compute VCC and IC for  = i)100
and ii) 300

29. 4 Resistor Bias Circuit –Example (1)
ICQ = IB = 3.09 mA
IEQ = (1+ )IB = 3.12 mA
VCEQ = VCC-ICRC-IERE = * *1=16.68V

30. 4 Resistor Bias Circuit –Example (2)
ICQ = 300IB = 3.13 mA
IEQ = (1+ )IB = 3.14 mA
VCEQ = VCC-ICRC-IERE = * *1=16.53V

31. 4 Resistor Bias Circuit –Example (3)
 = 100
 = 300
% Change
VCEQ
16.68 V
16.53 V
0.9 %
ICQ
3.09 mA
3.13 mA
1.29 %
The above table shows that even with wide variation of  the bias points are very stable.

32. Four-Resistor Bias Network for BJT
F. A. region correct - Q-point is (201 mA, 4.32 V)

33. Four-Resistor Bias Network for BJT (cont.)
All calculated currents > 0, VBC = VBE - VCE = = V
Hence, base-collector junction is reverse-biased, and assumption of forward-active region operation is correct.
Load-line for the circuit is:
The two points needed to plot the load line are (0, 12 V) and (314 mA, 0). Resulting load line is plotted on common-emitter output characteristics.
IB = 2.7 mA, intersection of corresponding characteristic with load line gives Q-point.

34. Four-Resistor Bias Network for BJT: Design Objectives
We know that
This implies that IB << I2, so that I1 = I2. So base current doesn’t disturb voltage divider action. Thus, Q-point is independent of base current as well as current gain.
Also, VEQ is designed to be large enough that small variations in the assumed value of VBE won’t affect IE.
Current in base voltage divider network is limited by choosing I2 ≤ IC/5.
This ensures that power dissipation in bias resistors is < 17 % of total quiescent power consumed by circuit and I2 >> IB for b > 50.

35. Four-Resistor Bias Network for BJT: Design Guidelines
Choose Thévenin equivalent base voltage
Select R1 to set I1 = 9IB.
Select R2 to set I2 = 10IB.
RE is determined by VEQ and desired IC.
RC is determined by desired VCE.

36. Four-Resistor Bias Network for BJT: Example
Problem: Design 4-resistor bias circuit with given parameters.
Given data: IC = 750 mA, bF = 100, VCC = 15 V, VCE = 5 V
Assumptions: Forward-active operation region, VBE = 0.7 V
Analysis: Divide (VCC - VCE) equally between RE and RC. Thus, VE = 5 V
and VC = 10 V

37. Two-Resistor Bias Network for BJT: Example
Problem: Find Q-point for pnp transistor in 2-resistor bias circuit with
given parameters.
Given data: bF = 50, VCC = 9 V
Assumptions: Forward-active operation region, VEB = 0.7 V
Analysis:
Forward-active region operation is correct Q-point is : (6.01 mA, 2.88 V)