1. History of Social Policy Development
The British Caribbean

2. Thinking Points
How are we going to let go of the “legacy of slavery and colonialism” in the Caribbean?
Given our constrained resources how are we going to provide for the “whole” person?
Where is the best place for us to spend our resources of time, money and creative thinking?

3. Issues Sale of national resources (long vs. short term)
IMF relationship
Investment in country
Case of Guyana
Forming alliances – kinds of competition
Terms for investors
Role of negotiation internationally
Gains from our resources
What is development?

4. Issues
Other sectors – Tourism (local people, eco)? Agriculture? Mining?
Education and health to make money?
Reallocation of resources from the government – Faith’s Pen?
Self-interest vs. National interest?
Self-confidence; self-esteem?
Federation? Other Groupings?

5. Introduction
Social policy in the Caribbean could be categorized as distinctly curative in nature, seeking to address the breakdown in other traditional policy areas, specifically those related to health, education, and employment.

6. Introduction
However, the causal issues underlying the approaches taken to deal with social issues are more complex than the simple failure of mainstream ministries.
For the majority of countries, historical factors related to slavery and colonialism have contributed to contemporary problems as they relate to the family and access to resources among the dominant ethnic group, despite the abolition of slavery in 1834.

7. Pre 1838 – Period of Plantation Slavery
Spanish Control of Jamaica , British Control
Basic needs for health, housing, food for slaves were provided by masters.
Social provisions during English Period were an adaptation of Elizabethan Poor Law – Established in Jamaica in (Cumper, 1987)

8. Pre 1838 – Period of Plantation Slavery
Welfare provisions only for sick and aged; able- bodied were put to work, vagrants were put in houses of correction (Cumper, 1987)
Poor Law did not apply to slaves ; only to free poor, a small minority.
Note that it was a “crime” to be poor.

9. Pre 1838 – Period of Plantation Slavery
Main social provisions were endowments from planter’s trusts and churches (Bryan, 1990) to assist women and children and to build schools for poor whites and free coloureds, e.g. Wolmers, (1729) Munro College, (1797).

10. 1838 -Post Emancipation Period
No provisions were made in Jamaica after Emancipation for poor relief to ex-slave population
Many slaves could not afford land, only a few were given/bought land.
Law passed against squatting
Many doctors employed during slavery left after Emancipation

11. 1838 -Post Emancipation Period
Ex-slaves had to provide for themselves from very low wages. Had to compete for work with indentured servants from India, China
Govt. imposed tax system which ensured that the ex-slaves most in need of welfare would provide the bulk of tax revenue to fund poor relief (Bryan, 1990)

12. Post Emancipation Period
Sugar industry faced economic woes in 1840s and 1850s, high levels of unemployment and poverty.
Many came to Kingston for jobs, town became overrun with vagrants, hustlers (men, boys), beggars, prostitutes, unemployed people.

13. 1838 to 1899
Social unrest resulted, came to a head with Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica. After this Parish Boards began administration of poor relief.
Growing Juvenile Population led to Royal Commission - Report spoke to the bad situation of children and women i.e. those without financial support for children, those with fallen status, the elderly and infirm.

14. 1838 to 1899
Concerns with morbidity and mortality due to disease spread and public ill-health led to early makings of public health and sanitation policy.
No concern for building human capital or uplifting/empowering ex-slaves existed.

15. 1838 to 1899
1881 Poor relief law modified- Governor able to make rules regarding management of the poor and distribution of poor relief, medical attention and building and supervision of poor houses, and poor relief boards
1886 – Board of Supervision replaced function of the Governor. An Appeals board also established.

16. 1838 to 1899
Guyana: introduction of Poor Relief Act in indicated responsibilities of plantation owners and state.
Central Gov’t. accepted full responsibility for poor relief
Barbados: Poor Man’s Board in 1880; Settlement of the Poor Act in 1897 placing poor children in Alms houses

17. 1838 to 1899 Assistance to the poor
Limited state social provisions - religious charities were involved in:
Assistance to the poor
Provision of basic education; Initiation of primary education
Provision of primary health care; Homes for poor children

18. 1838 to 1899
Growth of Self-help initiatives based on collective action:
Friendly Societies/Benevolent Societies and Burial Schemes – a form of social insurance: saving for funeral expenses, sickness, old-age.
T’dad and Guyana saw Friendly Societies established on basis of ethnic groupings.

19. Early 20th Century Changes
Government improved its attitude to poor – started building public hospitals, offering relief to farmers affected by natural disasters
Small subsidies given to the Church and voluntary bodies who provided services for children (grants to children’s homes), youth, aged, persons with disabilities

20. 1930s Civil Disturbances Economic, social, political dissatisfaction
World economy was in depression, making worse the situation in the Caribbean
Increased Discontent with Colonial Authorities
Riots and Demonstrations
Recognition that the government should address social needs of populace started to develop
World economy was in depression, making worse the situation in the Caribbean
Keynesianism born due to depression in the industrialized countries – called for State intervention in the working of the economy to prevent depression
Keynesian economics leads to development theory/economics. In the British colonies, Development economics meant the concerns of the population being included in social policy objectives – Sir Arthur Lewis, famous Development Economist – state institutions seen as critical to social and economic planning. This led to central planning agencies, central statistical offices, central banks, etc, although not created until the 1950s.
Modernization theory was another outgrowth of development economics. This included the sociological issues.

21. 1938 to 1960s
The Moyne Commission, appointed by the British Government in 1938 cited that the main cause of the disturbances were a demand for better living conditions, which had scarcely been addressed since emancipation one century earlier.

22. 1938 to 1960s
The main recommendations of the Commission were the fixing of wages, the establishment of wage boards, implementation of unemployment insurance, factory inspections to reduce accidents, the protection of trade unions, and the establishment of a labour department.

23. 1938 to 1960s
Many of these recommendations were not adopted immediately, however, in contrast to the other countries in the region, and as an example of the delays in implementation seen, Barbados was the first to adopt a non- contributory pension for poor elderly persons in 1938, followed by Trinidad and Tobago in 1939, and Guyana (then British Guiana) in 1944.
Not until the late 20th Century did the majority of other countries in the region follow this lead (Seekings, 2006).

24. 1938 to 1960s
1938 marked by social unrest throughout British West Indies, leading to a Royal Commission of Inquiry
Recommendations of Moyne Commission report (1940) ; Preceded by Deane Commission report in 1939 in B’dos.
Comprehensive social planning
Improve social & economic conditions through expansion of health, education services, improve housing & public sanitation, establish labour departments & social welfare & land settlement facilities

25. 1938 to 1960s
1938 –Jamaica Welfare Limited established by a fund created from a cess on banana exports. Fund was used for development in rural peasant farming communities
– literacy, skills training, craft skills, nutrition education and to promote the philosophy of self-help
1940s – Community Development initiatives become entrenched across British West Indies

26. 1938 to 1960s
1940 -Arising from Moyne Commission, Govt agreed to provide greater social welfare services and to increase subsidies to voluntary groups.
CCVSS – Central Council of Voluntary Social Services established in Jamaica in Role was to coordinate activities of voluntary organisations, offer training and serve as the body through which government subsidies to the voluntary sector were channeled.

27. 1938 to 1960s 1950s – move to professionalize social services
1940s – Universal Adult Suffrage won in Jamaica, T&T, B’dos., Guyana
Locals became more involved in nation building and representational politics, there was more pressure on colonial government for creation of government welfare services by the 1950s.
1950s – move to professionalize social services
Between many teachers and social service providers were trained in Social Work to become Social Welfare Officers of the State

28. 1938 to 1960s
1940s – Strong emphasis on Youth, state funded youth programmes, Youth Clubs formed islandwide based on British model across region, also 4H Clubs
1951 – Child care and Protection Service established in Jamaica
Adoption services in Jamaica
1950s – Social Welfare Department established in B’dos and Adoption services
1950s – T’dad. State gave subsidies to voluntary child care programmes

29. 1938 to 1960s Beginning of Political Independence movements
1943- Govt took over Jamaica Welfare Ltd. Eventually renamed Social Development Commission in 1965.
Birth of National Insurance Schemes in 1950s to wean poor off poor relief and help elderly and infirm
Sugar Industry Pension Scheme in Jamaica;
Old Age Pension and Superannuation Schemes Law

30. 1960s- Post Independence Period
Education
Expansion of Primary, Secondary (mainly all-age) and Tertiary level Education
Promotion of Technical and Vocational training
Social Insurance
1965 – National Insurance Act - NIS started in 1966
Establishment of Provident Funds in smaller territories, as precursor to social insurance

31. 1970s
Free health Care – Employment of Community Health Aides to promote Healthy Lifestyles and provide primary health care
Emphasis on preventive health, not curative
State-led social housing developments
NHT started in 1975 to make housing more affordable to working class

32. 1970s
Social Legislation enacted – minimum wage, gender equality, working conditions, repeal of Bastardy Act
Free Education for Primary through to Secondary in Ja, B’dos (and tertiary free in B’dos and highly subsidized in Ja) and other territories

33. 1970s
CDB launched Basic Needs Trust Fund (1970s) to address needs of poor; to extend access to basic social services
School Guidance Counselling Services introduced in Jamaica and T’dad, in B’dos in 1980s.
OPEC Oil shocks in 1973 and 1979, tripled (1973)and quadrupled price of oil (1979). Jamaica signed its first IMF agreement in 1977
The Basic Needs Trust Fund (BNTF) programme is a direct targeted poverty reduction programme of the Caribbean Development Bank. Its mission is “To be a community development programme that supports health, education, water and sanitation, access and economic activities through skills training, organisational development and infrastructure and services”.
The Programme supports sustainable asset building and livehood strategies of communities. Its method of implementation is participatory, allowing for a more socially inclusive development process. Interventions include infrastructure and services, training for income earning and institutional development for social re-adjustment and community organisation and management. Regional Programme activities focus on ensuring compliance with regional and international standards for environmental sustainability, disaster risk reduction, gender equality and project management.
This initiative was launched in 1979 by CDB with financial assistance from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).

34. Late 70s – 1980s Neo-liberalism and structural adjustment
Severe Balance of Payments (BOP) – (external accounts of nation) problems by mid-late 70s.
Oil shocks inflated import bill
Reduced exports due to oil-price induced recession in Developed World, reduced demand, falling commodity prices, glut
The current account shows the net amount a country is earning if it is in surplus, or spending if it is in deficit. It is the sum of the balance of trade (net earnings on exports – payments for imports) , factor income (earnings on foreign investments – payments made to foreign investors) and cash transfers. Its called the current account as it covers transactions in the "here and now" - those that don't give rise to future claims.[2]
The capital account records the net change in ownership of foreign assets. It includes the reserve account (the international operations of a nation's central bank), along with loans and investments between the country and the rest of world (but not the future regular repayments / dividends that the loans and investments yield, those are earnings and will be recorded in the current account).
Expressed with the standard meaning for the capital account, the BOP identity is:
The balancing item is simply an amount that accounts for any statistical errors and make sure the current and capital accounts sum to zero. At high level, by the principles of double entry accounting, an entry in the current account gives rise to an entry in the capital account, and in aggregate the two accounts should balance. A balance isn't always reflected in reported figures, which might, for example, report a surplus for both accounts, but when this happens it always means something has been missed—most commonly, the operations of the country's central bank.[3]

35. Late 70s – 1980s Neo-liberalism and structural adjustment
Bauxite Production Levy Act introduced a tax in 1974, in order to increase Jamaica's share of the income in that industry.
The government positioned the state in the leadership role within the process of economic development, with a view to attenuating and rectifying inherited economic inequalities.

36. Late 70s – 1980s Neo-liberalism and structural adjustment
Related to this was an ideology of social reform to protect the weakest sections of the population, and to promote the welfare of the poor through subsidized food, housing, education, health, and other important social services.
In international affairs, Jamaica opened up relations with many non-capitalist countries, and promoted the solidarity of the Third World in international negotiations with the advanced countries.

37. Late 70s – 1980s Neo-liberalism and structural adjustment
Reduced foreign investment in bauxite, and reduced production due to negative reaction to Bauxite Levy. (Anderson and Witter, 1994)
Formation of the Capital Development Fund (CDF) from the proceeds of the Levy to support community and infrastructural development in the bauxite belt.
Specific areas in St. Catherine, Clarendon, Manchester, St. Elizabeth and St. Ann targeted for improved social, educational, and economic amenities earned from the presence of such sustained industrial activity.

38. Late 70s – 1980s Neo-liberalism and structural adjustment
Successive governments have had to use the money for general support of the Consolidated Fund.
In 2006 some JA$2.9 billion was used for budgetary support, leaving $515 million in the kitty, with reports of $25 million allocated to the Bauxite Community Development Fund.
The bauxite funds are being allocated through the politicians rather than the community organisations and councils who should be the real beneficiaries and conveyors of this programme.

39. Late 70s – 1980s Neo-liberalism and structural adjustment
Despite initial reservations, the bauxite companies have been diligent about their fiscal responsibilities regarding the levy and taxes, and have contributed significantly to the social and economic development of their host communities and the country.

40. Late 70s – 1980s Neo-liberalism and structural adjustment
Increasing levels of public sector spending during 70s increased import bill
Govt. increased borrowing on Euromarket flush with OPEC petrodollars (Anderson and Witter, 1994; 9)

41. Late 70s – 1980s Neo-liberalism and structural adjustment
Massive lending of petrodollars by private banks in US and Europe to Third World countries took place during 1970s.
Lending increased from $2billion in to $90 billion in 1981 (McMichael, 2004; 123) mainly to offset oil price increases

42. Late 70s – 1980s Neo-liberalism and structural adjustment
First world in recession, banks eager to lend to third world but inadequate due diligence
By 1980 US sought to stem the fall of the $US by reducing money supply, led to credit squeeze and higher interest rates on loans (McMichael, 2004;130).

43. 1980s Neo-liberalism, Debt Crisis and structural adjustment
Start of debt crisis signalled by Mexico defaulting on its debt in 1982
US/EU banks were heavily exposed, on the brink of a collapse if Third World governments were unable to repay loans.
(McMichael, 2004).

44. 1980s Neo-liberalism, Debt Crisis and structural adjustment
By the end of the decade, the government sought assistance from the IMF and the World Bank, and since then these two institutions, along with the USAID, have determined the policy framework of the government.
Jamaica sought IMF assistance in 1977 to deal with BOP crisis.

45. 1980s Neo-liberalism, Debt Crisis and structural adjustment
IMF intervened to prevent collapse of international banking system and ensure debt repayment by Third World states.
Jamaica signed eight agreements with IMF between 1977 and 1999, several were failed.

46. Conclusion
The main groups of concern that form the basis for the institutionalization of social policy in the Caribbean today relate to:
Children and the Youth
Women
The Elderly
The Family
Persons Living with HIV/AIDS
Persons with Disabilities
The Unemployed
The Income Poor

47. Conclusion
The main groups of concern that form the basis for the institutionalization of social policy in the Caribbean today relate to:
Children and the Youth
Women
The Elderly
The Family
Persons Living with HIV/AIDS
Persons with Disabilities
The Unemployed
The Income Poor

48. Conclusion
In reviewing the current approaches to addressing social problems in the Caribbean, governments have for the most part adopted policies based on the individual at risk, rather than the underlying cause.
This is evidenced by the terms utilized in the naming of ministerial departments, and individual ministries, where such terms as Youth, Gender, Persons with Disabilities, and the Elderly are recurring.

49. Conclusion
While some may consider this an issue of semantics, it speaks directly to the nature of the interventions pursued, which for the most part attempt to separate multiple facets of the individual into several different departments or ministries.
This is a chronic problem in the Caribbean, especially when channels of communication between departments and ministries are difficult to traverse.

50. Conclusion
In seeking to assist vulnerable groups at risk, a number of policies and programmes have been implemented across the Caribbean.
The methodologies utilized in these policies and programmes seek to address sustainable improvements in personal well-being, suffer from a fragmentation of services, where individuals that are members of more than one of the above groups are subjected to bureaucratic delays in having to seek services across departments and ministries.

51. Conclusion
In addressing social needs, a number of policy measures have been implemented.
The main measures utilized in the Caribbean can be categorized into four broad areas: Developmental; Supportive; Remedial; and Preventative. These areas are defined as follows:
Developmental: speaks to the issue of capacity building, such as that seen in both vocational and generic training schemes.

52. Conclusion
Supportive: deals with the provision of ‘welfare’ in its Katzian sense (Katz, 1983), where persons at risk are supported, but their capacity to cope with the underlying cause of their situation is not addressed.
Remedial: addresses the restoration of individuals to former states, such as seen in the aftermath of disasters, or other traumas such as physical or sexual abuse.

53. Conclusion
Preventative: provides support to those at risk to reduce the likelihood of suffering; in essence providing protection and increasing resilience.

54. Conclusion: For the Future
Thinking Point: Students to consider the implications for social provision of the recently announced tax package and the NDX in Jamaica.