1. Islam in Rural Afghanistan:
Instructor:
Ms. Lyla Kohistany
This presentation is Unclassified

2. Why Culture and Religion Matter
“The issue of desecration cannot be resolved with apologies. Those behind the tragic incident must be punished and sent to jail,…
we Afghans have rendered countless sacrifices to protect our religion, with millions embracing martyrdom and suffering disabilities during jihad against the Soviet occupation army!”
Instructor Notes: As the recent furor over the Qur’an burning incident attests, knowledge of culture and religion in Afghanistan is extremely important…
Image Source:
Head of Ulema Counsel - <
Gen Allen on CNN <
Qur’an Burning Cartoon - <
Background Info:
Ulema Council chief rejects American regrets
by Pajhwok Report onFeb 22, :05KABUL (PAN)
As protests against alleged burning of the Quran by US troops are spreading across the country, the Afghanistan Ulema Council on Wednesday said mere apologies were longer acceptable to the nation.
At least eight people were killed and 21 others wounded as protests over the alleged desecration of the holy book at the Bagram Airbase continued for a second day, officials and witnesses said.
Maulvi Qayamuddin Kashaf, denounced the incident at a meeting with the United Nations Secretary General’s Special Representative for Afghanistan Jan Kubish, the council said in a statement.
On Tuesday, the White House, Defense Secretary Leon Panetta and the State Department also apologized to the people and government of Afghanistan over the incident.
But Kashaf said: “The issue of desecration cannot be resolved with apologies. Those behind the tragic incident must be punished and sent to jail,” Kashaf was quoted as saying in the statement.
He added the Afghans had rendered countless sacrifices to protect their religion, with millions of people embracing martyrdom and suffering disabilities during jihad against the Soviet occupation army.
Kashaf warned against keeping a mum over punishment to the soldiers responsible for the blasphemy, saying the officials concerned would be held accountable for the consequences.
US Ambassador to Afghanistan Ryan C. Crocker extended his sincere apologies to the people of Afghanistan and expressed his deep regrets over the issue. He said Gen. John Allen had immediately offered his apology and ordered an investigation.
A day earlier, Allen said: “We are thoroughly investigating the incident and we are taking steps to ensure this does not ever happen again. I assure you ... I promise you ... this was not intentional in any way.”
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Maulvi Qayamuddin Kashaf, Leader of the Afghan Ulema Council (Photo: Pajhwok Afghan News)

3. Learning Objectives
TLO#1: Understand the basic tenets of Islam and how they manifest in rural Afghanistan
TLO#2: Understand how Islam was once in balance with rural Afghan Society (Musahiban Dynasty) and the presenters perspective on how this could be again
TLO#3: Understand the historical role of Islam within the context of Pashtun society and its place within Pashtunwali
TLO#4: Understand the underlying historic tensions between Pashtun Khans and Mullahs, with Mullahs upsetting the balance of stability and rising to the forefront of power under the banner of Islam
TLO#5: Understand the historic inability of Mullahs to make peace and establish stability and that normally Khans or external actors are required to put things back in balance
TLO#6: Attendees are familiar with some recommendations on how to deal with Islam when conducting VSO

4. BLUF Afghanistan is a 99% Muslim state
Islam permeates all aspects of life
Pashtuns make little distinction between culture and religion
Greater tension between Pashtunwali and Sharia in the Loya Paktia area, less in the South
Pashtuns consider themselves pious Muslims and see no forced “conversion” or ever having been non-Muslim
You can’t out-Muslim an Afghan, you can’t out- Pashtunwali a Pashtun
Abdul Rahman and Taliban have tried, with terror and force

5. BLUF Islam and Informal Governance MUST be balanced
Jirga without Mullah is largely ineffective
Line between Mullah and Malik blurred
If government courts worked, locals would use them for conflict resolution related to land, water, etc.
Taliban Sharia Court not traditional form of dispute resolution, but more and more accepted due to reach and enforcement

6. Islamic Identity in Afghanistan
shahadah “testimony of faith”
allah-u akbar
“God is greatest”
masjid (mosque)
For Afghans, Islam represents a potentially unifying symbolic system which offsets the divisiveness that frequently rises from the existence of a tenacious hold on tribal loyalties and an abounding sense of personal and family honor found in Afghanistan’s mult-itribal and multiethnic societies.
AND – SUFISM – mystical tradition as espoused Jalaladdin Rumi discussed last time – has a strong foothold.
Islam is a central, pervasive influence throughout Afghan society; religious observances punctuate the rhythm of each day and season. In addition to a central Friday mosque for weekly communal prayers which are not obligatory but generally attended, smaller community-maintained mosques stand at the center of villages, as well as town and city neighborhoods. Mosques serve not only as places of worship, but for a multitude of functions, including shelter for guests, places to meet and gossip, the focus of social religious festivities and schools. Almost every Afghan has at one time during his youth studied at a mosque school; for many this is the only formal education they receive.
Because Islam is a total way of life and functions as a comprehensive code of social behavior regulating all human relationships, individual and family status depends on the proper observance of the society's value system based on concepts defined in Islam. These are characterized by honesty, frugality, generosity, virtuousness, piousness, fairness, truthfulness, tolerance and respect for others. To uphold family honor, elders also control the behavior of their children according to these same Islamic prescriptions. At times, even competitive relations between tribal or ethnic groups are expressed in terms claiming religious superiority. In short, Islam structures day-to-day interactions of all members of the community.

7. Islam: An Abrahamic Faith
Angels & Demons
Prophets
Monotheism
Commonalities?
Judgment Day
Instruc tor Notes
Define Abrahamic faiths and explain Islam’s identity as an Abrahamic faith
List the three Abrahamic faiths
Ask Participants to recall any commonalities Islam shares with Judaism and Christianity
Discuss/Confirm the commonalities Islam shares with Judaism and Christianity
[Note: The commonalities in the center of the Venn Diagram have animated entry to allow Participants to recall any commonalities first.]
Talking Points
As we mentioned earlier, one of Islam’s inherent appeals was that it was familiar as an Abrahamic faith. As such, Islam was not a completely unique religion, but rather a continuation of the Abrahamic tradition. Judaism (represented here by the Star of David), Christianity (represented here by the Cross), and Islam (represented here by the Crescent and Star) are considered Abrahamic faiths because they recognize Abraham both as a primary forefather and as Prophet. Abraham embarked on a geographical and spiritual pilgrimage which eventually spawned these three faiths.
Can you think of any commonalities Islam has with Christianity and Judaism?
[After Participant responses, reveal the listed commonalities with animated entry. Note, these can be revealed and discussed one at a time, or all at once depending on how much Participants recall on their own.]
There are a number of commonalities amongst the Abrahamic faiths.
Monotheism: Muslims, Christians, and Jews believe there is only one God. Muslims use the word Allah to refer to God.
Prophets: Muslims, Christians, and Jews acknowledge Aaron, Abraham, David, Elijah, Ezekiel, Isaac, Isaiah, Jacob, Jeremiah, Jesus, Job, John the Baptist, Jonah, Joseph, Joshua, Moses, Noah, Samuel, and Solomon as Prophets. However, Islam is the only Abrahamic faith that acknowledges Muhammad as a Prophet.
Judgment Day: Each faith believes that salvation is determined for each human being on Judgment Day. Salvation can ultimately be achieved through God’s mercy, good deeds, and demonstrated faith.
Angels: These monotheistic religions believe that God has created angels to do the work on God’s behalf. Certain angels, like Gabriel play an important role in all three reliigons.
Demons: While Islam does not acknowledge fallen angels as Christianity and Judaism do, Islam does acknowledge jinn, which are entities separate from angels or humans. Similar to mankind, some jinn disobey God’s will and are considered to aid the Devil as demonic spirits.
Heaven & Hell: Abrahamic faiths acknowledge an afterlife which range from paradise and heaven to eternal hell, torment, punishment or guilt.
Sacred Texts: Muslims consider Jews and Christians to be “People of the Book” because their religions also have revelatory, prophetic texts through which God is seen to call mankind to worship him. Christians reference the Bible as their main text and the word of God. The main Jewish text is the Hebrew Tanakh, which includes the Torah. Muslims reference the Qur’an as the final revelation to man by God.
[After slide review.]
Now, let’s dive deeper into the basics of Islamic theology.
Sacred Texts
Heaven

8. Five Pillars of Islam and Manifestations
shahadah: lit. “bearing witness” (kalima)
salat: “prayer,” 5 x daily
zakat: “almsgiving”
sawm (Persian ~ roza): “fasting” during Ramadan (ramazan)
hajj: “pilgrimage” to Mecca
Instructor Speaking Notes:
shahadah: lit. “bearing witness”; there is no God but God, and Muhammad is his prophet”
salat: “prayer,” five times a day, facing qiblah --- towards Makkah (Mecca)
zakat: “almsgiving,” every year 2.5 percent of one's wealth is given away to the poor or needy; but charity always encouraged
sawm (Persian ~ roza): “fasting” during ninth month of Muslim Lunar calendar (Ramadan); abstain during daylight focus on faith
hajj: “pilgrimage” for Muslims who can afford or are physically able
Background Information:
Source: McDowell, Michael and Nathan Brown, World Religions at Your Fingertips (New York: Alpha Books/Penguin Group, 2009), pp
The five pillars of Islam are as follows:
Shahadah: Literally, “bearing witness,” which means both the belief and verbal testimony that “There is no God but God (Allah), and Muhammad is his prophet.”
To follow…
I S L A M

9. The Quran-e Sharif (“Holy/Noble Qur’an”)
Muslims believe the Qur’an (Arabic ~ “Recitations”) is revealed word of God
Muhammad received message in Arabic during a period of years from Angel Jibril (Gabriel)
As Allah’s final message to mankind, Muslims believe that the Qur’an supersedes all others: the Old Testament, Gospels, etc.
The Qur’an is organized in a collection of surahs or chapters from shortest to longest --- not chronologically. Individual verses are known as ayat (“signs”).
Muhammad received the surahs from Allah. Scribes selected by Muhammad usually wrote down these verses. Sometimes they wrote on
wood, trees, parchment, and even stones. Many followers also memorized the Qur’an by heart.
In later years, the Qur’an was recopied and refined; accents and markings for reading were added.

10. Hadith (al-hadith) : Narrative
Oral traditions relating to the words and deeds of the prophet
Regarded by all madh’hab as tools for determining the sunnah
Estimated from 159, ,000, collected hundreds of years after Muhammad’s death
Determined by isnad (“chain of
transmission”) and graded
Six Sunni compilations
Three Shia compliations
The word hadith is often transliterated in the West as “sayings” but that can be somewhat misleading. When we refer to the sayings of Shakespeare or Benjamin Franklin, --- we usually mean only those words that seem particularly witty or wise.
With hadith, the sayings do not necessarily have to be profound or pithy, in fact, many address ordinary or casual activities. With hadith, what matters most is that Muhammad said them, at least according to a “chain of transmission” or isnad which is/has been determined by the compiler of the hadith and, in some cases, verified by other religious scholars.
In religious studies this is known as the criterion of multiple or independent attestation.
For example, one hadith records that the Prophet once told a fellow Muslim that he should never have shaved his beard even though it was sparse and scraggly. If anyone else would have said this, it would likely soon be forgotten.
Photo of Supposed 7th Cent. Hadith Manuscript: BRISSAUD/ GAMMA
Page from 9th Century Hadith Collection, Syria

11. Khorasan: Land of al-Mahdi
Hadith: "If you see the black flags coming from Khorasan, join that army, even if you have to crawl over ice, for that is the army of the Imam al-Mahdi and no one can stop that army until it reaches al-Quds“
Strength of hadith is disputed, --- but militants around the world (esp Al Qaeda) use it to muster support for insurgency in AFPAK
Some even infer Mullah Omar (as amir ul-mu’minin) or UBL could be al-Mahdi
Photos:
Instructor Notes:
Afghanistan has special significance to the world of militant Islam. It was once called Khorasan (which loosely translates as “Land Where the Sun Rises”), along with parts of Iran and Pakistan by the first Arab armies to enter the region in the 7th Century.
However, long before this occurred, the Prophet Muhammad is believed to have uttered the prophecy which is shown in its full context (in translation from the original Arabic, of course). Does anyone known where al-Quds is located? Correct, al-Quds is the Arabic name for Jerusalem which is the second or third holiest city for most Muslims (after Mecca and Medina, of course). Has anyone watched the movie “Kingdom of Heaven”? If so, you’ll recall how important the city of Jerusalem was, and arguably has remained, for all three monotheistic faiths (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam).
So after having read this hadith, do you think al-Qaeda and the Taliban have been able to leverage this particular prophecy in their favor? Clearly, they need not even make the claim that they are this army from Khorasan but only infer it…for it to have a powerful effect and resonance with many like-minded extremist. And this is but one example of how the radical or extremist elements leverage religious principles, concepts, and narratives in their favor.
Proof of this may be found in the flags which al Qaeda and the Taliban have chosen to represent their cause…all of which are clearly analogous to the “black flags” or banners mentioned in this hadith. Does anyone recognize this first flag? It is the flag of the as-salaf or first community of Muslims. The next flag maybe more recognizable, --- (click to photo showing UBL)…what about now?
Below is an archival photo of some Taliban fighters in the mid-1990s. Note that their flag was also originally black (though later changed to white with black writing perhaps to distinguish it from the AQ flag). This last flag is a more recent creation, pulled from a Jihadist website. It’s unlnown creator, has declared it the “new flag of Khorasan” and it has been appearing with greater frequency on a number of Jihadist websites.
Background Information:
Source: <
Black Banners From Khurasan (Afghanistan) To Jerusalem:
They Will Be Always Successful And Will  Pledge Their Allegiance To Imam Mahdi
Pity poor Taleqan (a region in Afghanistan) that at that place are treasures of Allah, but these are not of gold and silver but consist of people who have recognised Allah as they should have. (Al-Muttaqi al-Hindi, Al-Burhan fi Alamat al-Mahdi Akhir al-zaman, p.59)
*Note:The people of Taliqan are sunnis,following Hanafi Deobandi methodology since centuries.Jowzjan/Juzjanan province in Afghanistan.
On 11 September, after Taleban forces reportedly declared Taliqan town and its surrounding villages military zones, some 18,000 people living in the villages of Ganj Ali Beg, Sarai Sang, Khatayan, Qazaq, Ahan Dara, and Shurab were forced to abandon their homes in search of safety.Click here for :Source 1.Black Flags /Black banners From East i.e Khurasan[Afghanistan] Abu Abdullah Nuaim Ibn Hammad on a chain of transmission on the authority of Al Zuhari who said " The black flags will come from the East, led by mighty men, with long hair and beards, their surnames are taken from the names of their home towns (i.e. Khosti or from Khost etc.) and their first names are from a "Kunya"(Asmal Masalik Lieyyam Mahdiyy Maliki Li Kull-id Dunya Biemrillah-il Malik, Qalda bin Zayd) Hadhrat Buraidah (R.A.) says that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said: "There will be many armies after me. You must join that army which will come from Khurasaan." (Ibn Adi)
On the authority of Thawbaan (May Allah be pleased with him), the Messenger of Allah said: "If you see the Black Banners coming from Khurasan go to them immediately, even if you must crawl over ice, because indeed amongst them is the Caliph, Al Mahdi." [Narrated on authority of Ibn Majah, Al-Hakim, Ahmad]
 Narrated by Abdur Rehman Al-Jarshi that I heard companion of Dear Prophet(salallaho alayhay wa sallam), Hazrat Amr Bin Marra Al-jamli(R.A) that Dear Prophet(salallaho alayhay wa sallam) said: Surely Black Flag will appear from the Khorasan until the people(under the leadership of this flag) will tie their horses with the Olive Trees between Bait-e-Lahya and Harasta. We asked are there any Olive trees between these places. He said,”If there isn’t then soon it will grow so that those people(of Khorasan) will come and tie their horses there.”[Ref: Kitab-al-Fitan Page 215. Also at Page 108 in the book “Islam main Imam Mahdi ka Tasawer” by Maulana Professor Muhammad Yousaf Khan,Jamia Ashrafia Lahore,Pakistan.]
Harasta (Arabic: حرستا, transliteration: Ḥarastā), also known as Harasta al-Basal, is a Syrian city administratively belonging to Rif Dimashq. Harasta has an altitude of 702 meters. It has a population of 38,184 as of 2007, making it the 43rd largest city per geographical entity in Syria.
Beit Lahia (Arabic: بيت لاهيا or بيت لاهية) is a town under Palestinian Authority of about 40,000 people in the northern Gaza Strip. It is located north of Jabalia, near Beit Hanoun and the border with Israel. Hamas, an Islamic party, took control of it during the 2005 municipal elections.
The word “Lahia” is Syriac and means “desolate” or “tiresome”. It is surrounded by sand dunes, some rise to 55m above sea level. The area is renowned for its many large Sycamore trees. The Israeli settlements of Nisanit, Elei Sinai, and Dugit that were in close proximity to Beit Lahia were evacuated during August 2005.Beit Lahiaبيت لاهيBeit
LahiyaBayt Lahiya
Thawban said, "The Prophet said: 'Three men will be killed at the place where your treasure is.  Each of them will be the son of a Khalifah, and none of  them will get hold of the treasure.  Then black banners will come out of the east...' If you see him, go and give him your allegiance, even if you have to  crawl over ice, because he is the Khalifah of Allah, the Mahdi.'“
This hadith is reported in Sunan Ibn Majah vol 3 number 4084  in  'Kitab al-Fitan, Baab Kharuj al-Mahdi' and 'Mustadrak' al-Hakim. Hakim classified it as saheeh on the conditions set by al-Bukhari and Muslim and al-Dhahabi agreed. Ibn Kathir wrote about it in his 'al-Nihaya (al-Fitan wa al-Malahim)' that its isnaad is 'qawii' (strong). al-Albani considers some of the chains as unacceptable, but writes the hadith is correct in meaning without the addition, 'he is the Khalifah of Allah, the Mahdi.' He rates the isnaad of Ibn Majah from 'Alqama from Ibn Mas'ud as hasan which does not have the words, 'khalifa-tullah.' He then goes on to discuss why this addition is not acceptable. ('Silsilah al-Ahadeeth al-Da'eefah wa al-Maudu'a', vol 1, p , Hadith #85)
You’ll join hands with a Christian group and war with another. You’ll gain victoryAt that time, you will be present in a plain of great mountains with plenty of trees. In the meantime, the Christians will raise the crucifix and refer the victory to it. At this, a Muslim will become angry, and will pull the crucifix down, at which, the Christians will unite breaking all treaties with the Muslims.The Christians will demand their wanted people, to which the Muslims will answer:"By Allah! They are our brothers. We will never hand them over. This will start the war. One-third Muslims will run away. Their ‘Tawbah’ (Repentance) will never be accepted.. One-third will be killed.They will be the best 'Shaheed' (martyrs) near Allah The remaining one-third will gain victory(6708,6709  Ibn Hibban)
Khurasaan in the time of Prophet (SAW) included the whole Afghanistan, Northern parts of Pakistan including Malak and Divison , central Asian states, part of Iran -- still a province in the North East of the country is named Khurasaan
At the time, when the Muslim Ummah will have abundance of wealth, gold and silver, the Muslims will be extremely belittled, weak and helpless. The enemy nations will invite each other to pounce upon them as hungry people invite one another for food. The Sahabah (R.A) asked with utter worry, "O Prophet of Allah! Would we be very few in number?" Prophet Muhammad (S) replied: "No! You’d be as great in quantity as the foam of the sea is, seen wherever the eye can reach. But you’ll be overtaken by ‘wahn’." The Sahabah (R.A) asked, "O Prophet of Allah! What is ‘wahn’?" He (S) replied: "Love of this world and fear of death!" You’ll join hands with a Christian group and war with another. You’ll gain victory. At that time, you will be present in a plain of great mountains with plenty of trees. In the meantime, the Christians will raise the crucifix and refer the victory to it. At this, a Muslim will become angry, and will pull the crucifix down, at which, the Christians will unite breaking all treaties with the Muslims.The Christians will demand their wanted people, to which the Muslims will answer:"By Allah! They are our brothers. We will never hand them over." This will start the war. One-third Muslims will run away. Their ‘Tawbah’ (Repentance) will never be accepted. One-third will be killed. They will be the best 'Shaheed' (martyrs) near Allah. The remaining one-third will gain victory, until, under the leadership of Imam Mehdi, they will fight against Kufr  (non-believers).. (Ibn Majah)
Reported on a chain of transmission on the authority of Kaab "The sign of the Mahdi's appearance will be war banners coming from the west, lead by a man with a disability from "Kinda" (Nuaym son of Hammad, Al-Fitan page 205) *Note: Genreral Richard Meyers, commander of the US Joint chiefs of staff declared the war on Afghanistan in October 2001 on crutches.
There is a Hadith of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) about the symbols of the Judgment day that people with the Black Flag will rise up from the land of Khurasaan to fight against Kuffar Alliances in the Final War of Armageddon.
Geographically, Syria can be divided into four regions. A narrow fertile coastal plain runs along the Mediterranean border and extends inland to a narrow range of mountains and hills. The coastal climate is moderate with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters; the average annual rainfall is this area is between 30 and 40 inches. The mountainous region runs from north to south, parallel to the Mediterranean Sea. The interior semiarid plains region is found to the east of the mountains. Much of the southeastern part of Syria is desert region that extends to the borders of Jordan and Iraq; most of the desert is a rock and gravel plateau that receives less than four inches of rain annually and is extremely hot.
Geographically, Syria is a land of great diversity that includes coastline, mountainous areas, steppe, and desert.
You will make a firm truce with the Christians (al-Rum) until you and they wage a campaign against an enemy that is attacking them. You will be granted victory and great spoils. Then you will alight in a plain surrounded by hills. There, someone among the Christians shall say: 'The Cross has overcome!' whereupon someone among the Muslims shall say: 'Nay, Allah has overcome!' and shall go and break the cross.
The Christians shall kill him, then the Muslims shall take up their arms and the two sides shall fall upon each other. Allah shall grant martyrdom to that group of Muslims. After that the Christians shall say to their leader: 'We shall relieve you of the Arabs,' and they shall gather up for the great battle (al-malhama). They shall come to you under eighty flags, each flag gathering 12,000 troops." [approx. 1 million] Narrated with sound chains from Dhu Mikhbar al-Najashi by Abu Dawud, Ahmad, Ibn Majah, Ibn Hibban, and al-Hakim who declared it sahih and al-Dhahabi concurred. See Shaykh Shu`ayb Arna'ut's documentation of this hadith in his edition of Sahih Ibn Hibban (15: # ).   Narrated Abu Hurayrah: Allah's Apostle (peace_be_upon_him) said: The Last Hour will not come until the Romans land at al-A'maq or in Dabiq[north of Aleppo( a city in northen syria). An army consisting of the best (soldiers) of the people on Earth at that time will come from Medina (to oppose them). When they arrange themselves in ranks, the Romans will say: Do not stand between us and those (Muslims) who took prisoners from among us. Let us fight them. The Muslims will say: Nay, by Allah, we shall never turn aside from you and from our brethren so that you may fight them.
They will then fight and a third (part) of the army, whom Allah will never forgive, will run away. A third (part of the army), which will be constituted of excellent martyrs in Allah's eyes, would be killed. The third who will never be put on trial will win and they will be the conquerors of Constantinople. (and/or Rome) As they are busy in distributing the spoils of war (amongst themselves) after hanging their swords by the olive trees, Satan will cry: The Dajjal has taken your place among your families. They will then come out, but it will be of no avail. When they reach Syria, he will come out while they are still preparing themselves for battle, drawing up the ranks. Certainly, the time of prayer will come and then ‘Eessa (peace_be_upon_him), son of Maryam, descends and will lead them in prayer. When the enemy of Allah sees him, it will (disappear) just as salt dissolves in water and if he (‘Eessa) were not to confront them at all, even then it would dissolve completely. Allah would kill them by his hand and he would show them their blood on his lance.
(Muslim Book No: 40 No: 6924) *Note:This is the part of the victorious army from Afghanistan-Taliban war facing similar fate in three categories,here connecting the old victorios army's fate with the current victorious army.Hence the victoriours army never lost continuty in its entirety.  
Christian Control In the era preceding Qiyamah the Christians will control/govern the whole world. The Christians will reach Khyber.(Hadith quoted in Bab-al-Qeyamah by Muhaddith Shah Rafee-ud-din RA)".  (*Note:Place in present day Saudi close to Madina. US forces are already positioned there)
Taliban Also Wears Black Turbans & White Clothers Al Hasan Al Basri said:"A man of medium stature will come from Ar-Ray (a far-eastern town). He will be dark and from the children of Tamim -- a Wasaj, named Shuayb son of Salih with four thousand men. Their clothes will be white and Banners black, and at his front is the Mahdi. He meets no one that he does not defeat and scatter."
Note: The children of Al Abbas have indeed carried black banners in revolt, which occurred some time ago. The Taliban wear black turbans and white clothes, and do carry Black Banners in wartime. Army Of Black Banner consists mainly of Pathans/Bani Israel Narrated Abu Hurayrah: Allah's Apostle (peace_be_upon_him) said: You have heard of the city, one side of which is inclined and the other is on the coast. They said: Yes, Allah's Apostle (peace_be_upon_him). Thereupon he said: The Last Hour will not come until 70,000 people from the children of Israel attack it. When they land there, they will neither fight with weapons nor shower arrows but will only say: "There is no god but Allah and Allah is the Greatest," and one side of it will fall. Thawr (one of the narrators) said: I think that he said: The area on the coast. Then they will say for the second time: "There is no god but Allah and Allah is the Greatest," and the other side will also fall. They will say: "There is no god but Allah is the Greatest," and the gates will be opened for them and they will enter. They will be collecting spoils of war and distributing them among themselves when a noise will be heard and it will be said: Verily, the Dajjal has come. Thus they will leave everything there and turn to (confront) him. (Sahih Muslim Book No: 40 No: 6979)
Qays Tribe:Narrated by Hazrat Abu Huraira(R.A) Dear Prophet(Salallaho alayhay wa sallam) said: That a person called Sufyani will appear from the suburbs of Damascus and his general followers will be the people of Kulaib Tribe.He attack(so fiercely) that he will cut the bellies of Women and kill children. To fight against him, the people of the Tribe of Qais will gather. Sufyani will fight them and kill them so much that no valley will be left without their dead bodies .
*Note:Where is the tribe of Qais?Emperor Jahangir ordered his courtier to search for the origin of the Pashtoons and so the famous book "Makhzan e Afghani” was written in 1635,which also confirms the orgin of Pashtoons from the lost tribes and also tells about the the tribe of QAIS. It tells us that the Qias was friend of Companion of Dear Prophet(salallaho alayhay wa sallam) and was the first person among Pathans who reverted to Islam. Most of the Pathan tribes consider Qais as their ancestor and therefore the Pathans can also be considered as the tribe of Qais. Arabs Will be less in Number Narrated Umm Sharik: I heard Allah's Apostle (peace be upon him) said: The people would run away from the Dajjal seeking shelter in the mountains. She said: Where would be the Arabs then on the day? He said: They would be small in number. (Muslim.)
Yellow Banners/ Flags Ammar, the son of Yasir, may Allah be pleased with both of them, said: "When As-Sufyaani reaches Kufa and kills the supporters of the family of Muhammad, praise and peace be upon him, the Mahdi will come and the bearer of his Banner will be Shuayb, the son of Salih." Nuaim Ibn Hammad on a chain of transmission on the authority of Al Zuhari who said, "If the people of the black flag divide, then the people of the yellow banner will attack, they will gather in the canal of Egypt and the people of the East and the West will fight for seven (days or months or years)..." (Asmal Masalik Lieyyam Mahdiyy Maliki Li Kull-id Dunya Biemrillah-il Malik, Qalda bin Zayd)
of the east, and when the people of the Maghrib settle in Jordan, their ruler will die. So they will split into three groups; one group that will return to where they came from, one group that will go to the Hajj, and one group that will stay and against whom the Sufyaani will fight. He will defeat them, and they will enter his obedience."(Nu'aym ibn Hammad, Kitab al-Fitan, No. 54)
Az-Zuhri said:"The black banners will meet in battle with the yellow banners, and they will fight each other up to Palestine. Then the Sufyaani will come out against the people
 *Note: The Jewish defense league also uses a yellow flag. It may also be that the yellow standards from the west, and the black standards from the east actually fight in the canal of Egypt for 7 days/months/years. Click here to view the Flag
Black Banners Will Establish Power for Mahdi [a.s] Said son of Al Musayyab reported: "The Black Banners will come from the East from the children of Al Abbas. Then there will remain whatsoever Allah wishes. Then, small Black Banners will come to fight a man from the children of Abu Sufyaan from the East. They will give their allegiance to the Mahdi." (Nuaym ibn Hammad.)
The Prophet (PBUH ) said: "We (I and my family) are members of a household that Allah (SWT) has chosen for them the life of the Hereafter over the life of this world; and the members of my household (Ahlul-Bayt) shall suffer a great affliction and they shall be forcefully expelled from their homes after my death; then there will come people from the East carrying black flags, and they will ask for some good to be given to them, but they shall be refused service; as such, they will wage war and emerge victorious, and will be offered that which they desired in the first place, but they will refuse to accept it till they pass it to a man from my family (Ahlul-Bayt) appears to fill the Earth with justice as it has been filled with corruption. So whoever reaches that (time) ought to come to them even if crawling on the ice/snow since among them is the Vice-regent of Allah (Khalifatullah) al-Mahdi." References: Sunan Ibn Majah, v2, Tradition #4082, The History Tabari al-Sawa'iq al-Muhriqah, by Ibn Hajar, Ch. 11, section 1, pp Abdullah, the son of Shuraykh, said:"With the Mahdi is the marked Banner  of the Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him."   On the authority of Thawban, the Messenger of Allah (upon whom be blessings and peace) said: The Prophet Sallallahu ‘Alaihi Wa Sallam said: "Before your treasure, three will kill each other -- all of them are sons of a different caliph but none will be the recipient. Then the Black Banners will appear from the East and they will kill you in a way that has never before been done by a nation." Thawban, a companion said: 'Then he said something that I do not remember by heart' then continued to say that the Prophet, praise and peace be upon him, said: "If you see him give him your allegiance, even if you have to crawl over ice, because surely he is the Caliph of Allah, the Mahdi. If you see the black (meaning war) flags coming from Khurasan (Afghanistan), join that army, even if you have to crawl over ice, for this is the army of the Caliph, the Mahdi and no one can stop that army until it reaches Jerusalem."(Son of Majah, Al Busiri, Al Hakim, Ahmad Nuaym, Ad-Daylami, Hasan, son of Sufyaan, and Abu Nuaym.)
Related by Abu Hurayrah: The Prophet Sallallahu ‘Alaihi Wa Sallam said: "(Armies carrying) black flags will come from Khurasan (Afghanistan). No power will be able to stop them and they will finally reach Jerusalem where they will erect their flags." (Tirmidhi)
Ibne Majah Page 300,  Also in  Ahmad's Musnad, al-Haakim's Mustadrak and others *Note:[The authenticity of this hadith is discussed in the end ]
Al-Harith son of Hirath & Mansoor Ali said, “The Prophet said, ‘A man named al-Harith son of Hirath will come from Transoxania [Central Asia ] His army will be led by a man named Mansoor. He will be pave the way for and establish the government of the family of Muhammad, just as the Quraysh established the government of the Messenger of Allah. Every believer will be obliged to support them.’” (Abu-Dawud.)
'Abdullah, the son of Abbas, may Allah be pleased with both of them, said to Mujahid: "If I had not heard that you are like the people of this House I would never tell you this." Whereupon Mujahid said: "It is surely in secret, I will not mention it to someone you hate." So Ibn Abbas told him: "There are four people from the House, from us is As-Saffah, and from us Al Mundhir, and from us the Mansoor, and from us is the Mahdi." So Mujahid said: "Clarify these four for me." He answered: "As for As-Saffah, perhaps he will kill his supporters and forgive his enemy. Al Mundhir will give away plenty of wealth, he will be humble and keep but a little of his rights. The Mansoor, will be given victory over his enemy and part of what was given to the Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him, and that is that his enemies were frightened away from him the traveling distance of two months, whereas the enemy of the Mansoor will be frightened away from him the traveling distance of one month. The Mahdi will fill the earth with justice just as it has been filled with transgression -- livestock and foxes will live together peacefully. And the earth will bring forth that which is hidden from its depths -- they look like cylinders of gold or silver."(Found in reference to 'Ali ibn Abu Talib)
About Shuayb, the son of Salih, from Tamim: Ammar, the son of Yasir, may Allah be pleased with both of them, said: "The bearer of the Banner of the Mahdi is Shuayb, the son of Salih."
Muhammad, son of Al Hanaffia, said:"The Black Banners will come out for the children of Al Abbas. The other black banners will come from Khurasan. Their turbans will be black and their clothes white. At their front will be a man named Shuayb, the son of Salih, from Tamim. They will defeat the companions of The Sufyaani until he comes to the House of Jerusalem where he will establish his power for the Mahdi, and he will be supplied with three hundred (men) from Syria after his arrival and the matter will be settled for the Mahdi in seventy-two months (six years)."
Al Hasan Al Basri said:"A man of medium stature will come from Ar-Ray (a far-eastern town). He will be dark and from the children of Tamim -- a Wasaj, named Shuayb son of Salih with four thousand men. Their clothes will be white and Banners black, and at his front is the Mahdi. He meets no one that he does not defeat and scatter."
Some Arabs will fight with Mahdi [a.s] and they will be defeated.
Umm Salamah reported that the Prophet said,"Disagreement will occur at the death of a ruler and a man from the people of Medina will flee to Mecca. Some of the people of Mecca will come to him, bring him out against his will and swear allegiance to him between the Corner and the Maqam. An army will then be sent against him from Syria but will be swallowed up in the desert between Mecca and Medina. When the people see that, the eminent saints (Al-Abdal) of Syria and the best people of Iraq will come to him and swear allegiance to him.  Then a man from Quraysh whose mother is from Kalb will appear and send against them an army which will be overcome by them, and that is the Battle of Kalb. Disappointed will be the one who does not receive the booty of Kalb. He will divide the property, and will govern the people by the Sunnah of the Prophet. He will remain seven years, then die, and the Muslims will pray over him." (Abu Dawud) *Note: The ruler of Syria at that time is the Sufyaani .
Imam Mahdi with his army which is mainly bani Israel i.e Pashthuns/pathans will fight some Arabs . "When the dark people come after the Arabs they will be defeated and thrown into the lowest part of the earth. While these circumstances exist, The Sufyaani will come with three hundred and sixty riders until he reaches Damascus. After a month, he will be followed by thirty thousand from Kalb, so he will send an army to Iraq and kill a hundred thousand in Az-Zawra. Then they will go to Kufa and pillage. When this occurs a banner will come from the east led by a man from Tamim called Shuayb, the son of Salih who will restore what is in their hands from the captured people of Kufa and he will kill them. Then, another army from The Sufyaani will go to Medina and pillage it for three days and thereafter proceed towards Mecca until they find themselves in a desert. Then, Allah will send Gabriel and say to him, 'Chastise them!' So he will beat them with his leg once and Allah will cause them to be swallowed up. None will remain except two men who will return to The Sufyaani to inform him of the swallowing-up of his army, but this will not scare him. Several men from the Quraysh will escape to Istanbul and The Sufyaani will send to the leader of the Romans who will return them to him and he will slit their throats together with their followers. At that time a voice will come from Heaven saying: 'O people, surely Allah prevents dictatorship, tyrants and their followers for you and gives leadership to the best of the nation of Muhammad. So join him in Mecca -- he is the Mahdi!" Then, Hudhayfah asked: 'O Messenger of Allah, how shall we know him?' He replied: "He is a man from my children, he looks like the men from the children of Israel, upon him are two white cloaks with frayed edges"Qutwaani" cloaks. His face is like a colorful, glittering star, upon his right cheek there is a black mole and he is forty years old. Al Abdal and those looking like them will come to him from Syria. An-Nujaba will come to him from the dwellers of  Egypt and groups of dwellers from the east, and those looking like them until they all gather together in Mecca and so they will pledge their allegiance to him between Al Rukn and Al Makam. Then he will direct himself towards Syria with Gabriel at his front and Michael at his middle and the dwellers of Heaven and Earth will be joyful because of him. Water will be plentiful in his country and the river will be spread and treasures found. When he reaches Syria he will slay The Sufyaani under the tree, the branches of which grow in the direction of Lake Tiberias and he will kill Kalb. So the loser of that Day of Kalb is he who does not gain even a rein." Hudhaybah asked: 'O Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him, how is it permitted to kill them when they believe in the Oneness?' The Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him, replied: "O Hudhayfah, they are at that time apostates, they claim that wine is permitted and do not pray." (Narrated by Hudhayfah and are found in the references of Abu Nuaym, At-Tabarani, and Abu Amru Ad Dani.)
'There will be a city called Zawra between the Tigris and the Euphrates. There will be a great battle there. Women will be taken prisoner, and men will have their throats cut like sheep.' (Muntakhab Kanzul Ummal, vol. 5, p. 38)
Narrated by Hudhayfah, The Prophet said: "The Mahdi is a man from my children. His face is like a glittering star, his skin is the color of an Arab, and his body is like that of Israel. He will fill the earth with justice just as it will have been filled by injustice, and the dwellers of Heaven and Earth will be pleased with his Caliphate." (Abu Nuaym, At-Tabarani, and Abu Amru Ad Dani.)
Imam Mahdi is himself Bani Ismael i.e belonging to progeny of Prophet Muhammad [peace be upon him] and a decendent of Fatima r.a & Ali r.a but he will resemble like the men of Bani Israel.
*Note:The best example of the Islamic pattern is Baghdad whose exterior walls are not the same height as the interior ones, with alleys and curves separating them for defensive purposes. Hence Baghdad was also called 'Al Zawra'a'. Also Al-Zawra'a Park in Al-Mansour Area and almost in a central location of Baghdad.
Sahih ahadith of Muslim Armies with Black Banners to come "Thawbaan reported that the Prophet (Sallallaahu `alayhi wa sallam) said, 'Three will fight for the your treasure (of the Ka`bah), each of them the son of a 'Khaleefah', it will be rendered to none of them. Then from the direction of the East will emerge black flags. Then they will fight you like they have fought none before.' Then some words were spoken which I did not remember. He then said, 'If you see him, give bay`ah to him even if you must crawl over ice. For, verily, he is the 'Khaleefah' of Allah (Khaleefatullaah), the Mahdi". This Hadeeth is found in Ibn Maajah, Ahmad's Musnad, al-Haakim's Mustadrak and others. After analysing the chain of narration found in Ibn Maajah's Sunan the narrators are in the following authentic unbroken reliable chain: 1) Reported to Ibn Maajah by both Muhammad bin Yahya and Ahmad bin Yusuf - Both reliable; Imam Muslim has said about Ahmad bin Yusuf, "He is reliable (thiqqah)." an-Nasaa'i has said, "There is no problem in him." ad-DaraaquTni has said, "Reliable and noble (thiqqah nabeel)." 2) `Abdur-Razzaq bin Hammaam as-San`aani - Reliable. Ahmad bin Hanbal was asked about him, "Have you seen anyone better in Hadeeth than `Abdur-Razzaaq?" He replied, "No". 3) Sufyaan ath-Thawri - Too reputable to record his merits. Very reliable. Shu`bah, Sufyaan bin `Uyaynah, Abu `AaSim an-Nabeel and YaHya ibn Ma`een among others said: "Sufyaan is the 'Ameer al-Mu'mineen" of Hadeeth"! 4) Khaalid bin Mahraan al-Hathaa' - Reliable. Ahmad bin Hanbal has said, "Trustworthy (thabt)." Ibn Ma`een and an-Nasaa'i have both said, "Reliable (thiqqah)." 5) Abi Qulaaba Abdullaah bin Zayd al-Harrami - Reliable. Muhammad bin Sa`d has said in his "at-Tabaqah ath-Thaaniyah min Ahl al-Basrah" about him, "He was reliable (thiqqah)." 6) Abu Asmaa' `Amroo bin Marthad ar-RaHabi - Reliable. al-`Ijly has said about him, "Shaami, Tabi`ee, Reliable (thiqqah)." 7) Thawbaan - Companion and servant of the Prophet (Sallallaahu `alayhi wa sallam). 8) The Prophet (Sallallaahu `alayhi wa sallam). ["Tahtheeb al-Kamaal" of al-Mizzi and "Tahtheeb at-Tahtheeb" of Ibn Hajar were referenced for verification of the Narrators] In this chain of narrators, weakness is nowhere in sight, subhan'allah.
Allah Knows Best

12. Sources of Authority in Islam
Title
Safeguard
Substance
Qur’an
Allah
Collated after Prophet Muhammad’s death; compiled under Umar and standardized under Uthman
Aḥadīth
(Traditions or Sayings)
Prophet Muhammad
6 major compilations in Sunni Islam; major compilations in Shi’ism
Ijmā‘ (Consensus)
Community or Hidden Imam (Shi’a)
Four Sunni madhhabs; Shi’a Imam in every age
Qiyās
(analogy)
Qur’an, ahadith, Ijma
Analogical reasoning of jurists with regard to the teachings of 3 prior sources
Istislāh
(“to deem proper”)
Mujtahid (personal interpreter)
Mujtahid/Marja-e taqlid
Supported by Hanafi madhhab
Supported by Maliki madhhab
Supported by Ja’fari (Shi’a) madhhab

13. Sectarian Schism: Sunni and Shi’a
Like Christianity, Islam had its own schism
Schism over succession of Prophet Muhammad upon his death
Sunnis believe that leadership should be based on consensus of the community of beleivers (ummah)
Shiites believe leadership should be based on Prophet’s bloodline

14. Schools of Jurisprudence (madh’hab)
Schools deal with rites (orthopraxis) not sects
All schools concerned with study and practical application of jurisprudence ( fiqh )
Fiqh: The human endeavor to determine the will of God on any matter; fiqh subject to error, sharia’h is not
Muslims in Afghanistan and Pakistan are majority Sunni Hanafi
Important Note: Most Muslims are not overly concerned with the differences between schools except Sunni-Shi’a split
Madh’hab
Hanafi
Maliki
Sunni
Shafi’i
Hanbali
Ja’ffari Shi’a

15. Sufism (tasawwuf)
Lexical root: ṣūf "wool” (simple clothing of early ascetics) or possibly ṣafā "purity"
Mystical tradition that emerged in early 8th cent. in Iraq / Persia
Emphasizes internal, spiritual dimension of Islam; asceticism
Values insight, union with divine via meditation, music, and dance (zhikr, qawwali, sema) to focus awareness on Allah
O Allah! if I worship you for fear of hell… Burn me in hell If I worship you in hope of paradise… Exclude me from paradise But if I worship you for your own sake… Grudge me not your everlasting beauty
- Rabia al-Basra, 8th Cent.
Estimated Time
Exercise Objective
Required Materials
Instructor Notes
Talking Points
The lexical root of Sufi is variously traced to صُوف ṣūf "wool", referring either to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore, or possibly to صَفا ṣafā "purity". The two were combined by al-Rudhabari who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity.“
The wool cloaks were sometimes a designation of their initiation into the Sufi order. The early Sufi orders considered the wearing of this coat an imitation of Isa bin Maryam (Jesus). Sufism is known as "Islamic Mysticism," in which Muslims seek to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God.
Mysticism is defined as the experience of mystical union or direct communion with ultimate reality, and the belief that direct knowledge of God, spiritual truth, or ultimate reality can be attained through subjective experience (as intuition or insight).
Others suggest the origin of the word ṣufi is from Aṣhab aṣ-ṣuffa "Companions of the Porch", who were a group of impoverished Muslims during the time of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) who spent much of their time on the veranda of the Prophet's mosque, devoted to prayer and eager to memorize each new increment of the Qur'ān as it was revealed. Yet another etymology, advanced by the 10th century Persian historian Abu Rayhan al-Bīruni is that the word is linked with Greek word sophia, or "wisdom".

16. 17th c. Mughal painting showing Sufi founders in imaginary council
Sufi Orders (Tariqa)
Sufi teacher known as shaykh or pir ; murids are followers or disciples
Hundreds of sufi orders; nearly universal membership prior to 18thc.
Some of most prominent tariqat:
Naqshbandi, Baha Din Naqshband (14th c.)
Qadiri, Abd al-Qadir Jilani (12th c.)
Chishti, Mu’in ad-Din Chishti (13th c.)
Shadhili Abu’l-Hasan ash-Shadhili (13th c.)
Bektashi (Alevi), Haji Bektash Wali (13th c.)
Mevlevi, Jalal ad-Din Rumi al-Balkhi (13th c.)
Nimatullahi(Shi’a), Shah Wali Nimatullah (15th c.)
Notes:
Here is a list of some of the more prominent tariqat. At one time, there were hundreds of these orders. Today there are probably less than 60 worldwide, though there are some independent pirs or shaykhs who do not affiliate themselves with a particular order.
Interestingly, membership in these tariqat (predominately men but many women are also affiliated and would have their own separate meetings in more conservative societies) was near universal throughout the Islamic world prior to the 18th century. During the colonial and post-colonial period, however, many were banned because of their actual or supposed role in anti-government or anti-colonial activities. In actually, they began to function like guilds or trade and labor unions and their power, though usually softer and less overt, was sometimes used to mobilize the masses and so were seen as a threat by both colonial powers, local rulers, and often, even the ulem’a (traditional Islamic clergy).
17th c. Mughal painting showing Sufi founders in imaginary council

17. Overview of Islam in Afghanistan and South Asia
Unclassified
Overview of Islam in Afghanistan and South Asia
Sunni: Hanafi madhhab
Sunni masalak since the 19th century
Deobandi
Ahl-e Hadith/Salafi
Wahhabi
Shi’a: two sub-sects
Imami or “Twelver”
Ismai’li or “Sevener”
Sufism: both Sunni and Shi’a
Muslims
Sunni
Sufi
Shi’a
Hanafi
Jaffari
Barelvi
Ismai’li
Deobandi
Nizari
madhhab
Bohra
Salafi
Instructor Notes
Present the bullet points using the talking points.
Describe the diagram using the talking points.
Madhhab is a school of jurisprudence.
Talking Points
This slide shows how Islam exists in South Asia and Afghanistan.
Recall for participants the Sunni/Shi’a split presented in the Understanding Islam module.
The majority of Sunnis in South Asia/AFG belong to the Hanafi school of jurisprudence (recall from Understanding Islam).
Since the 19th century the predominant masalik or interpretative tradition similar to a Christian denomination has been Deobandi, Ahl-e Hadith and Wahhabi.
Both of the sub-sects of Shism are found in the region (recall from Understanding Islam).
Sufism is unique to the AFG-PK area as we’ll discuss later in this topic. Sufism is prevalent in southern and eastern AFG. It permeates Afghan culture, especially in poetry, music and folklore.
Use the diagram to further illustrate the bullets.
Use the three green objects at the top of the diagram to show the Islam split and the fact that Sufism is practiced by both Sunnis and Shi’as.
Those madhhabs and maslaks practiced in Afghanistan are shown in black and blue.
Mention that Barelvi is practiced in PK and will be covered in the Tribes, Religion and Social Customs of PK.
Hanbali
Wahhabi
Madhhab (school) in black
Masalak (denomination) in dark blue or grey
Unclassified

18. Sunni Muslims in Afghanistan
Sunni majority, approx. 80% of pop.
Arrived in early 9th cent.; full conversion by 14th cent.
Majority of ethnic groups except for Hazaras (mostly shia)
Sufism and Deobandism influential
Sunni Political Islam
Muslim Youth Organization
Mujahideen Tanzims (e.g. Jamiat Islami, Hezb-e Islami)
Taliban
Shamshir-e Do Masjid in downtown Kabul

19. Role of the Mullah
Persian word derived from Arabic mawla ("vicar", "master" and "guardian“)
Not always used as a term of respect; mullahs often subjects for humor
Normally implies a person with a limited or incomplete religious education
In Afghanistan/Pakistan, most mullah’s paid
by local, regional, or tribal leader --- or government
Community religious leader, provide dispute resolution on family/personal issues; great orator; collects zakat tax
Rise of Taliban changed traditional role of mullah
The closet comparison in the U.S. to the Mullah is probably a “preacher” especially in the American South.
Most Southern Preachers have little actual religious training but were “called by the lord” to preach and are excepted by the community as the resident religious authority, even though they are sometimes the subject of gentle ridicule.
A Maulana or Malvi implies advanced religious training, an the American equivalent might be a pastor that has attended and graduated from seminary school.
While the most general usage of "mullah" is one learned in Islamic law, it has taken on a connotation of an individual, strict in enforcing law and leading prayer, but not necessarily a trained cleric or scholar (alim, plural ulema). Often, the mullah is a simple preacher with relatively little status.
In Afghanistan (and much of South Asia), more veneration and respect is shown towards a Syed (a descent from the family of the Prophet) or a Pir, the sometimes hereditary leader of a Sufi order, for their supposed strong personal relationship to Allah.[1]
Historically, there has always been a balance of power or mutual tolerance between the village mullahs and sufi mystics,…
…However, ever since the Soviet Invasion (and perhaps earlier, with the arrival of Deobandi ulema in Afghanistan in late 19th century), the influence of more hard-line interpretative traditions (i.e. Deobandi, Ahl-e Hadith / salafi) with their ultra-orthodox religious scholarship (which tends to view many traditional sufi folk practices as bidah or shrik) have often clashed with or attempted to check the power and authority of sufism in the region. [2]
Richard F. Nyrop and Donald M. Seekins, ed. (January 1986), Religion, Afghanistan Country Study, Foreign Area Studies, The American University
2. Hassan Abbas (2005), Pakistan's Drift into Extremism: Allah, the Army, and America's War on Terror, M.E. Sharpe, ISBN , pp. 3-4
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Additional Information:
Source: <
An important figure in Muslim life in Afghanistan is the mullah (a male religious leader or teacher). Any man who can recite the Koran (the sacred scripture of Islam) from memory can be a mullah, but the mullah may not understand either the words or the meaning, since the book was written and is memorized in Arabic, which is not a local language. The mullah conducts the Friday sermon and prayers, marriages, and funerals.
Mullahs also teach the laws and doctrines of Islam to both adults and children. Mullahs arbitrate local disputes, based upon Islamic legal principles, and they are also called upon to provide advice and resolution of many other physical, social, and personal problems, including such things as medicines, local water disputes, or a family feud. In some of the more remote rural areas, the local mullah and the local khan (landlord) dictate what their followers may or may not do.

20. Role of Mosque (Masjid)
Center of religious life in rural areas/ “Community Center”
Site of communal Friday prayer
Hujrah is communal space adjacent to mosque to accommodate guests/visitors
Madrassa: school focused on memorization of Quran
Madaris/mosques supported by wafq (an Islamic communal trust fund and educational board)
A madrassa, in its most basic form, is a religious school that teaches Islam, or more specifically, Islamic jurisprudence and theology.
In modern usage, they are schools that teach memorization of the Qur’an rather than reflection and interpretation. While the term has become associated with schools indoctrinating in extreme Jihadist theologies, theology and curriculum vary from region to region and from school to school.
Not all such schools are not categorically tied to militancy, and their students are not necessarily poor. They are, as are mosques and public proselytizing events (tabligh) "“gathering” places where militant groups, religious ideologues, and potential recruits can interact."[1]
Another view comes from academic and Brookings Institute fellow Saleem Ali, who, while he has personal experience with violent militant graduates of madaris, does not believe they are inherently sources of terrorism.
He is, however, considerably concerned that the educational system in these madaris needs to be reformed on the premise that the 200-year-old curriculum prepares the students to be good seminarians, but does not give them the skills necessary for other vital professions they may wish to pursue.
Ali points out however, that this change must come from within the madrassah system because any change imposed from the outside will only be resisted.[2]
C. Christine Fair (July 2007), "Militant Recruitment in Pakistan: A New Look at the Militancy-Madrasah Connection", Asia Policy: 107–134,p. 108
Saleem Ali (18 March 2009), Pakistan’s Madrassahs and Extremism: Is there a Connection?, A Foreign Policy (magazine), Brookings Institution Doha Center and Saban Center for Middle East Policy Event

21. Denomination: Salafism
Sunni revivalist movement started in the 19th century (but claims earlier)
Advocates return to practices of original ummah in 7th century; --- often Islamist
Pious predecessors (first three generations) of Muslims are exemplary:
Sahaba ("Companions“)
Tabi‘un ("Followers")
Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in ("Those after the Followers")
Not monolithic – has undergone many structural and ideological changes
Anachronistic reconstruction of the banner of the as-salaf salih
Instructor notes:
Salafism Sunni reformist/revivalist movement that sees the pious predecessors and the ummah they created as exemplary models worthy of imitation, --- the as-salaf salih of the patristic period of early Islam
It actual origin is difficult to trace, --- Salafis say that it has always existed as a movement with Islam and has been perpetuated by those pious Muslims who strive to live by and practice “true Islam.” Many scholars, however, trace its origins back to the scholar ibn Tammiyyah.
In the opinion of some contemporary scholars, while the word and concept “salafi” is much older in origin, since the 19th century it has been re-claimed and used by Muslim intellectuals such as Jamal al-Din Afghani ( ), Muhammad Abduh ( ) and Rashid Rida ( ) to describe their anti-colonial revivalist movements.
It is a revivalist movement because it advocates a return to (or revival of) the religious practices an earlier time and place which it sees are free of misguided innovation (bidah) and polytheistic influences such as idolatry (shrik).
More specifically, Salfis venerate and advocate a return to what they believe were the pure and uncorrupted practices of the three generations of Muslims:
Sahaba ("Companions“)
Tabi‘un ("Followers")
Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in ("Those after the Followers")
Like Islam itself, Salafism is not monolithic – has undergone structural and ideological transformations since its 19th century inception.
Today, even amongst those Muslims who identify themselves as salafi, there is little agreement. For example, many scholars and members of the Muslim Brotherhood (Ikwan al-Muslimeen) consider themselves to be a salafi organization, however, other salafi groups have claimed they are not since they engaged in innovative practices (bid’ah).
Flag and Photo source: <
Additional background:
History of Salafism
From the perspective of Salafis, the history of salafism starts with Muhammad himself. They consider themselves direct followers of his teachings as outlined in the Qur'an and Sunnah (prophetic traditions), and wish to emulate the piety of the first three generations of Islam (the Salaf). All later scholars are merely revivers (not 'founders') of the original practices. Modern scholars may only come to teach (or remind) Muslims of the instructions of the original followers of Islam.
Etymology
An example of early usage of the word salaf is in the hadith of Muhammad who noted, "I am the best Salaf for you."[1]
Early usage of the term as an ascription appears in the book Al-Ansaab by Abu Sa'd Abd al-Kareem al-Sama'ni, who died in the year 1166 (562 of the Islamic calendar). Under the entry for the ascription al-Salafi he stated, "This is an ascription to the salaf, or the predecessors, and the adoptation of their school of thought based upon what I have heard." He then mentions an example or more of people who were utilizing this ascription in his time.[2] In commenting upon as-Sam'aanee's saying, Ibn al-Athir noted: "And a group were known by this ascription." Thus the term Salafi, and its ascription to the group, was a matter known in the time of early Islamic scholars.[3]
Early examples of usage
Some scholars, such as Ibn Taymiyyah, have noted: "There is no criticism for the one who proclaims the madh'hab of the Salaf, who attaches himself to it and refers to it. Rather, it is obligatory to accept that from him by unanimous agreement because the way of the Salaf is nothing but the truth."[4]
The term salafi has been used to describe to theological position of particular scholars. Abo al-Hasan Ali ibn Umar al-Daraqutuni (d. 995 C.E., 385 A.H.) was described by al-Dhahabi as: "Never having entered into rhetoric or polemics, instead he was salafi."[5]
Also, al-Dhahabi described Ibn al-Salah, a prominent 12th century hadith specialist, as: "Firm in his religiosity, salafi in his generality and correct in his denomination. [He] refrained from falling into common pitfalls, believed in Allah and in what Allah has informed us of from His names and description."[6]
In another of his works, Tadhkirat al-huffaz, al-Dhahabi said of Ibn al-Salah: "I say: He was salafi, of sound creed, abstaining from the interpretations of the scholars of rhetoric, believing in what has been textually established, without recourse to unjustified interpretation or elaboration.[7]
In his book, Tabsir al-Muntabih, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani mentioned the ascription al-Salafi and named Abd al-Rahman ibn Abdillah ibn Ahmad Al-Sarkhasi al-Salafi as an example of its usage. Ibn Hajar then said: "And, likewise, the one ascribing to the salaf."[8]
Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani also used the term, salafi to describe Muhammad ibn al-Qaasim ibn Sufyan al-Misri al-Maliki (d. 966 C.E., 355 A.H.) He said that al-Malaiki was: "Salafi al-madh'hab – salafi in his school of thought."[9]
Notes:
1. "Why the Word Salafee?". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on Retrieved  
2. Al-Ansab, by Abu Sa'd Abd al-Kareem Al-Sama'ni, vol. 7, pg. 168, photocopied from the Da'iah Al-Ma'arif Al-Uthmaniyah edition by the Al-Faruq publishing company of Egypt, no date provided. The names of those using this ascription were described by the verifier as being blank in all of the manuscript copies of the book, he obtained them by means of cross referencing.
3. A Reply to the Doubts of the Qutubiyyah Concerning Ascription to Sunnah and Salafiyyah, page 29, SalafiPublications.com, Article ID: SLF
4. Statements from the Salaf on Ascription to the Salaf, SalafiPublications.com, Article ID: SLF010001
5. Siyar 'Alam al-Nubula, by al-Dhahbi, vol. 16, pg. 457, no. 332, Mua'ssash al-Risalah, Beirut, 11th edition, 2001.
6. Siyar 'Alam al-Nubala, vol. 23, pg , by al-Dhahabi, Muassah al-Risalah, Beirut, 11th Edition, 2001.
7. Tadhkirah al-huffaz, vol. 4, pg. 1431, Da'irah al-Ma'arif al-'Uthmaniyyah, India.
8. Tabsir al-Muntabih Bitahrir al-Mushtabih, vol. 2, pg. 738, published by: Al-Mu'assasah al-Misriyyah al-'Ammah Lil-Talif wa Al-Anba' wa al-Nashr, edited by: Ali al-Bajawi, no additional information.
9. Lisan al-Mizan, by Ibn Hajar, vol. 5, pg. 348, no. 1143, Dar al-Kitab al-Islami, no additional information; it is spparently a reprint of the original Indian print. The quoted segment of Ibn Hajar's biography for al-Misri originated from Ibn Hajar, as this was not included in al-Dhahabi's biography of the same individual (who is named 'ibn Sha'ban' instead of ibn Sufyan).
Additional Background Info Below
Source: <
Salafi Islam
Salafi is a term often used to describe fundamentalist islamic thought.
The teachings of the reformer Abd Al-Wahhab are more often referred to by adherents as Salafi, that is, "following the forefathers of Islam." This branch of Islam is often referred to as "Wahhabi," a term that many adherents to this tradition do not use. Members of this form of Islam call themselves Muwahhidun ("Unitarians", or "unifiers of Islamic practice"). They use the Salafi Da'wa or Ahlul Sunna wal Jama'a. Wahhabism is a particular orientation within Salafism. Most puritanical groups in the Muslim world are Salafi in orientation, but not necessarily Wahhabi.
The Salafiyyah are a movement, and like the Sufis, can come from the Maliki, the Shafi, the Hanbali, or the Hanafi. But, that said, the Salafiyyah movement, is primarily confirmed to the Hanbali, and in particular the Wahhabiyyah, and their theological equivalents. The Salafiyyah movement to return Islam to it's purest roots (like the Islamic Amish!) has taken as reference points the teachings of Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal , Al Barbahaaree, or Al Laalikaa'ee, or Ash-Shaatibee, or Adh-Dhahabee, or Al Layth ibn Sa'd, or Abu Haneefah, and other scholars who adhered to the methodology of the salaf.
As-Salaf us-Salih (or briefly: the Salaf) refers to the first and best three generations of Muslims. They are the Companions (Sahabah) of the Prophet (S), their immediate followers (Tabiun), and the followers of the Tabi'in. The meaning in the Arabic language is "Those who precede, have gone before". It is a word used by the earliest scholars for "The first three generations of Muslims" and those who are upon their way in accordance with the Ahaadeeth of the Messenger Muhammad (sallAllaahu` alayhi wa sallam) which is reported in Saheeh al-Bukhaaree: The best of people/mankind is my generation, then those that follow them, then those that follow them.
The description "Salafi" is the name of a group of Muslims who try as hard as they can to imitate the Blessed Prophet in every aspect of life. Sometimes it may seem that the Salafis emphasize the laws and punishments of Islam so much that they make you feel there is no Islamic love and mercy. This is because they are sometimes very zealous in their views. A true Salafi values Tawhid, singling out Allah in all acts of worship: in supplication, in seeking aid, in seeking refuge in times of ease and hardship, in sacrifice, in making vows, in fearing and hoping and total reliance, and so on. A true Salafi actively seeks to remove shirk (polytheism) with all his capacity. They tend to be conservative on women's issues. The Salafi Da'wah is that of the Qur'an and the Sunnah. It is claimed to be the Religion of Islam - pure and free from any additions, deletions or alterations.
In the United States, Salafism has been equated by some with radicalism and terrorism in some newspaper articles, books, and public discourse. However, “Salafism” is not inherently synonymous with violence, terrorism, or radicalism. Many Salafis throughout the world are doctrinally rigid, but peaceful.
It is important to distinguish between the following groups, thought of (perhaps) as concentric circles:
"Jihadist Salafis" - such as the followers of al-Qaeda and like-minded local groups;
"Salafis" - those who believe that the imitation of the behavior of the Prophet’s closest companions should be the basis of the social order;
"Islamists" - a still broader category, which includes anyone who thinks that the precepts of Islam - however interpreted - should be fundamental to the political and social order; and,
"Discontented Muslims" - people who identify themselves as Muslims, and who are unhappy with their life prospects, with the justice of their societies, and/or with the state of the wider world.
The Salafi jihadist movement has attracted rootless and or committed internationalist militants. They fight for the jihad, seeking to re-create the Muslim ummah and shariat to build an Islamic community. Simultaneously conservatives and radical, they form a global network that has attracted Muslims from around the world to fight jihad in Kashmir, Bosnia, Chechnya, Afghanistan, and the Philippines. The salafi-jihadist movement in Central Asia and the Caucasus is more localized -- an expression of identity in areas such as Ferghana, villages in Daghestan, and upper Gharm valley. In Central Asia, the term "Wahabi" refers to fundamentalists who come from Pakistan or Afghanistan, but they are not necessarily a political movement. For example, Wahabis in Tajikistan do not recognize themselves as a political alignment. However, most Central Asian regimes use the term Wahabi more broadly to describe Islamic religious movements outside the states' control.
The Muslim Defense Force, a self-declared Salafi organization, stages protest against “crusaders” in UK

22. Denomination: Wahhabism
Sunni Reformist movement founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab ( )
Influenced by ibn Hanbal , ibn Tamiyyah, spartan desert upbringing
Additions to Islam after Prophet and first four caliphs is bidah (“innovation”) – including maddhabs
18th c. reform movement that forged an alliance with House of Saud (Hanbali)
Advocates “puritanical” version of Islam; rejection of Sufism/hostility towards Shiism
Petro-dollars used to export interpretation
Notes:
Wahhabism is an 18th century reform movement that started in what is today modern Saudi Arabia but has benefitted from its early alliance with the House of Saud (Saudi Arabia’s royal family) and Petro-dollars to promulgate its teaching and strict ultra-orthodox interpretation of Islam around the world.
Wahhabism advocates a strict monotheism and an uncompromising stance against Sufism and many other folk practices (with pagan, Hindu, or Zoroastrian origins) which have long characterized Islam in most countries outside of Saudi Arabia. Wahhabism is a reformist movement because it advocates a return to the original rituals and practices of Islam, stripped of all later practices and influence (such as schools of jurisprudence, sects, and cultural non-Islamic holidays).
In this way, its closest parallel in the Christian world may be Puritanism of the 17-18th centuries (as practiced by the pilgrims) or the Christian Fundamentalist-Revivalist (“Hellfire and Brimstone”) movement of the early 20th cent.
There are many ideological camps within Islam, sometimes in competition with the established madhhabs (“schools of jurisprudence or law”).
Two of these, often used interchangeably, are Salafism and Wahhabism. Wahhabism, named after its founder, strove to “do away” with the recognized schools, in an effort to “purify”, in their eyes, Islam. In so doing, the Wahhabis actually wound up, in the eyes of many, replacing many of the recognized views and traditions of Islam with something that is actually less like the Islam revealed to the Prophet. Wahhabis, a small minority of Muslims that receive a great deal of press due to their links with terrorist acts, came to power in concert with, or in collusion with the Sa’udi royal family. Their views were introduced into Afghanistan in the 1980s when those fighting the Soviet invasion sought outside help. As a result of Arab intervention, much of their ideology was also forced on many Afghans; however, the vast majority of Afghans reject Wahhabism as an undesired outside influence.
Wahhabism—movement related to Saudi Arabia—Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab ( ).
Reform movement that believes that absolutely every tenant added to Islam after the third century of the birth of Islam is corrupted.
Keep the original rituals and practices of Islam.
Foreign interests and modernity threaten this way of life.

23. Wahhabism and Salafism Compared
Name
Overview
Founder or Prominent Thinkers
madh’hab and kalam
Central Beliefs
wahhabiyya or muwahhidun (“unitarians”) or
ahl-e hadith (South Asia)
Reformist (“puritanical”) movement
Origin: 18th c. Arabia (Nejd); Saudi Arabia
ibn Hanbali (d. 240 AH / 855 AD); Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (d AH / 1792 AD)
Hanbali madh’hab; Athari theology
tawhid: uniqueness and unity of God;
Islam must be purged of impurities and heretical practices, esp. shirk and bid’ah
salafiyya or
ahl-as-sunnah
Revivalist movement
Origin: 7th c. Arabia (Hejaz) -or- 19th c. Egypt (esp. al-Azhar)
as-salaf as-salih (“pious predecessors”) or first three Muslim generations; Muhammad Abduh (d AD); et al
Disavow all madh’hab as un-necessary; Athari theology
Same as above
to incl.
Imitation of the salaf should be the basis of social order
Instructor Notes: The writings of ibn Tamiyyah (728 AH / 1328 AD) are often cited and revered by both Wahhabis and Salafis.
Background Notes:
The three Sunni schools of kalam (philosophical speculation on theological matters) or aqidah (creed) are Ash’ari, Maturidi, and Athari. Each differs over the nature of belief and the place of human reason especially as it relates to understanding Allah.
The Athari school emerged last and is most often associated with the teachings of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (founder of the Hanbali madh’hab). The Athari school seeks to avoid delving into extensive theological speculation and advocates a “textualist” viewpoint (in other words, laws and scriptures should be interpreted as literally written without employing such tools as precedent and intention i.e. “what is the intent or spirit of the law”)
Note: As a general rule of thumb; many Wahhabi might also consider themselves Salafi, --- but not all Salafi regard themselves as Wahhabi

24. Denomination: Deobandism
Ahmad Sarhindi
Purify Islam of Hindu influence, return to Sunnah
Shah Waliullah (d. 1762) - Indian Sufi
Pilgrimage to Mecca/Medina
Contemporary of al-Wahhab
Islam an individual pursuit
: Indian Roots
Dar-ul-Uloom University
Hanafi fiqh and al-Ashari theology
Many teachers associated with Naqshbandi and Qadari tariqas
Anti-Colonial Revivalist movement that emerged in wake of the 1857 “Indian Mutiny”
Late 1800’s – early 1900’s: Generated hundreds of affiliated madaris throughout India/Afghanistan
Dar ul-Uloom Madrassa, Deoband, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ahmad Sarhindi
Purify Islam of Hindu influence, return to Sunnah
Shah Waliullah (d. 1762) - Indian Sufi
Pilgrimage to Mecca/Medina
Under tutelage of al-Sindi, teacher of Abd al-Wahhab
Islam an individual pursuit, with ijtihad, no maddhabs
Photo: <
Instructor Notes:
Interestingly, the early founders of deobandism belonged to Sufi tariqahs but the movement now rejects popular mysticism and devotional practices (music, poetry, dance, etc.).
A Key figure who may have been responsible for bringing the infleunce of Deobandism to Afghanistan was Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi. Born into a Sikh family from Sialkot (Punjab) he converted to Islam as a young man and attended Dar-ul Islam madrassah in Deoband. He moved to Sindh and spent most of his life there except for trips to Afghanistan and into the FATA in his attempts to foment unrest and rebellion against the British in India.
Background Notes:
Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi (10 March August 1944) was a noted pan-Islamic leader a political activist of the Indian independence movement.
Ubaidullah was born on March 10, 1872 to a Sikh family at Chilanwali, in the district of Sialkot (now in Pakistan). His father Ram Singh Zargar died 4 months Ubaidullah was born, and the child Unaidullah was raised for the first years of his life under the care of his grandfather.
Following the latter’s death when Ubaidullah was two years of age, he was taken by his mother to the care of his maternal grandfather’s house.
Ubaidullah, was after sometime, entrusted to the care of his uncle at Jampur when his grandfather died. It was at Jampur that young Ubaidullah received his initial secular education.
Islam and Deoband
Ubaidullah converted to Islam early in his life and later enrolled in the Darul Uloom Deoband.
When he was at school, a Hindu friend gave him a book “Tuhfatul Hind” to read. It was written by a convert scholar Maulan Ubaidullah of Malerkotla. After reading this book and others, Ubaidullah’s interest in Islam grew, leading eventually to his conversion to Islam.
In 1887, the year os his conversion, he left for Sindh where he was taken as a student by Hafiz Muhammad Siddque of Chawinda. He subsequently studied at Deen Pur under Maulana Ghulam Muhammad where he delved deeper into Islamic education and training in mystical order.
In 1888 Ubaidullah was admitted to Darul Uloom Deoband, where he studied various islamic disciplines at depth under the tutelage of noted Islamic scholars of the time, including Maulana Abu Siraj, Maulana Rasheed Gangohi and Maulana Mahmud al Hasan. He took lessons in Bukhari and Tirmidhi from Maulana Nazeer Husain Dehlvi and read Logic and Philosophy from Maulana Ahmad Hasan Cawnpuri.
In 1891, Ubaidullah graduated from the Deoband school. He left for Sukkhur, and started teaching in Amrote Shareef. He married at this time the daughter of Maulana Azeemullah Khan, a teacher at Islamiyah High School.
In 1901, Ubaidullah established the Darul Irshaad in Goth Peer Jhanda in Sindh. He worked on propagating his school for nearly seven years. In l909, requested by Mahmud al Hasan, Ubaidullah returned to Deoband. Here, he accomplished much for the student body, Jamiatul Ansaar.
Ubaidullah was at this time very active in covert anti-British propaganda activities, which led to him alieniating a large part of the Deoband leaders. Subsequently, Ubaidullah moved his work to Delhi at Hasan’s request. At Delhi, he worked with Hakeem Ajmal Khan and Dr. Ansari. In 1912, he established a madrassah, Nazzaaratul Ma’arif which achieved much in the field of propagating Islam.
Pan-Islamic Movement and the Focus on Freedom of India
Ubaidullah gradually involved himself in the pan-Islamic movement. During World War I, he was amongst the leaders of the Deoband school who, led by Maulana Mahmud al Hasan, left India to seek support of the Central Powers for a Pan-Islmaic revolution in India in what came to be known as the Silk Letter Conspiracy.
Ubaidullah reached Kabul during the war to rally the Afghan Amir Habibullah Khan, and after brief period, he offered his support to Raja Mahendra Pratap’s plans for revolution in India with German support.
He joined the Provisional Government of India formed in Kabul in December 1915, and remained in Afghanistan till the end of the war, and left for Russia. He subsequently spent two years in Turkey and, passing through many countries, eventually reached Hijaz (Saudi Arabia) where he spent about fourteen years learning and pondering over the philosophy of Islam especially in the light of Shah Waliullah’s works.
He was one of the most active and prominent members of the faction of Indian Freedom Movement led by Muslim Clergy chiefly from Islamic School of Deoband. Ubaidullah Sindhi died on August 22, (Source: Wikipedia)
Afghanistan
With the onset of the World War I, efforts emerged from the Darul Uloom Deoband to forward the cause of Pan-Islam in India with the help of the Central Powers. Led by Mahmud al Hasan, plans were chalked out for an insurrection beginning in the tribal belt of North-west India.
Mahmud al Hasan, left India to seek the help of Galib Pasha, the Turkish governor of Hijaz, while at Hasan’s directions Ubaidullah Sindhi proceeded to Kabul to seek the Emir Habibullah’s support. The initial plans were to raise an Islamic army (Hizb Allah) headquartered at Medina, with an Indian contingent at Kabul. Maulana Hasan was to be the General-in-chief of this army.
Ubaidullah himself was preceded to Kabul by some of his students. While at Kabul, Ubaid Ullah came to the conclusion that focussing on the Indian Freedom Movement would best serve the pan-Islamic cause. Ubaidullah’s proposed to the Afghan Emir that he declare war against Britain.
Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi and Mahmud al Hasan (principle of the Darul Uloom Deoband) had proceeded to Kabul in October 1915 with plans to initiate a Muslim insurrection in the tribal belt of India. For this purpose, Ubaidallah was to propose that the Amir of Afghanistan declares war against Britain while Mahmud al Hasan sought German and Turkish help. Hasan proceeded to Hijaz.
In late 1915, Sindhi was met in Kabul by the Niedermayer-Hentig Expedition sent by the Indian independence committee in Berlin and the German war ministry. Nominally led by the exiled Indian prince Raja Mahendra Pratap, it had among its members the Islamic scholar Maulavi Barkatullah, the German officers Werner Otto von Hentig and Oskar Niedermayer, as well as a number of other notable individuals. The expedition tried to rally Emir Habibullah to the Central powers and through him begin a campaign into India, which it was hoped would initiate a rebellion in India.
On December 1, 1915, the Provisional Government of India was founded at Habibullah’s Bagh-e-Babur palace in the presence of the Indian, German and Turkish members of the expedition and friends. It was declared a revolutionary government-in-exile which was to take charge of independent India when British authority had been overthrown. Mahendra Pratap was proclaimed President, Barkatullah the Prime minister, Ubaidullah Sindhi the Minister for India, another Deobandi leader Maulavi Bashir its war Minister, and Champakaran Pillai the Foreign Minister. It obtained support from Galib Pasha and proclaimed Jihad against Britain. Recognition was sought from Tsarist Russia, Republican China and Japan.The Government would later attempt to obtain support from Soviet leadership. After the February Revolution in Russia in 1917, Pratap’s government corresponded with the nascent Soviet government. In 1918, Mahendra Pratap met Trotsky in Petrograd before meeting the Kaiser in Berlin, urging both to mobilise against British India.
However, these plans faltered, Habibullah remained steadfastly neutral while he awaited a concrete indication where the war headed, even as his advisory council and family members indicated their support against Britain. The Germans withdrew in 1917, but the Indian government stayed behind at Kabul. In 1919, the government was ultimately dissolved under British diplomatic pressure to Afghanistan.
Ubaidullah stayed in Kabul for nearly seven years. He encouraged young King Amanullah Khan, who took power after Habibullah’s assassination, in the Third Anglo-Afghan War. The conclusion of the war, ultimately, forced him to leave as Amanullah came under pressure from Britain.
Instructor Notes
Talking Points
Re: anti-Barelvism
Some of the hardening of the Deobandi outlook took place as it came into greater contact with Pashtun tribal norms
Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi ( ); he and his students key in spread of Deobandism to FATA and Afghanistan
UNCLASSIFIED

25. Deobandi Details Beliefs Affiliations
Movement seeks to purify Islam of syncretism and popular devotional practices, seen as being “Hindu”
Over time, became more strict, austere, and anti-Barelvi
Rejects popular mysticism
Affiliations
Strong madaris network, represented by the Wafq-ul-Madaris al-Arabia in Pakistan
Pashtun-majority JUI political parties in Pakistan
Pakistani Militant groups
Taliban groups and “Talibanism”
Instructor Notes
Talking Points
Re: anti-Barelvism
Some of the hardening of the Deobandi outlook took place as it came into greater contact with Pashtun tribal norms
UNCLASSIFIED

26. Shi’a Sub-sects
Result of disagreements over succession of the Imamate
Three branches/sects of Shi’ism:
Zaydiyya (“Fivers”)
Ismai’li (“Seveners”)
Imami (“Twelvers”) 7. 5 7 12

27. Shi’ism in Afghanistan
Shi’a masjid in west Kabul
Shi’a minority; approx. 19% of pop.
Shi’ism first appears during Mongol Ilkhanate ( s) then Safavid Dynasty ( s)
Afghan Shi’a are Jaffari (“Twelver”) or Ismai’li (“Sevener”)
“Dovazdah Imami”: Hazara, Qizilbash, Tajiks (Farsiwan, Nimruzi, Yazidi, some Kabuli)
Ismai’li - Tajiks (Baghlan and Badakhshan), Pamiri, some Hazara and Qizilbash
Shi'a Muslims constitute a minority of 19% within the predominantly Muslim population of Afghanistan. Most of the Pamir language speakers of the northeastern portion of the country (predominantly in Badakhshan Province bordering Tajikistan) are followers of the Nizari Ismaili sect, while the Hazara people, the third largest ethnic group in the country, are mostly practitioners of both Twelver and Ismaili Islam.
The smaller Qizilbash minority also practices Twelver Shi'a Islam.
Top photos: Shi’a Muslims in Kabul and Kandahar during Ashura<
Bottom photo: Afghan Shi’a women protesting the “rape law” which argues that an Afghan Shi’a man can legally have sex with his wife even against her consent

28. Prominent Afghan Shi’a Leader
Grand Ayatollah Muhammad Asif Muhsini (aka Mohseni) (b. 1935); Qizilbash Shi’a scholar
Received training in Qom (Iran) under Ayatollah Khui (a rival of Khomeini); Kandahar born, speaks Pashto
Many consider him an Islamist, misogynist, and human rights violator; --- infamous for marriage to underage girl and advocacy of Shi’a marriage “rape law” in Feb 2009
Founded Harakat-I Islami-yi Afghanistan in 1978; most effective military Shi’a mujahidin group against Soviets, later joined NA against Taliban
Owner of Tamadon (“Civilisation”) TV station; has visual appearance and religious content similar to Iranian state-run TV
Grand Ayatollah Muhammad Asif Muhsini (Sheik Muhsini) (born 1935) is a Twelver shi'a marja from Afghanistan. He is the founder of the Islamic Movement of Afghanistan (Harakat-I Islami-yi Afghanistan). He was born in Kandahar to an ethnic Qizilbash or Tajik [1] family.
He studied in Najaf, Iraq and became an Ayatollah.
In the 1960s he founded a movement called Subh-i Danish (Dawn of Knowledge), whose political and cultural revival program enjoyed some popularity among the Shia youth of Kabul.[2]
He founded Harakat-I Islami-yi Afghanistan in The group later played an important role in the 1980 rebellion against the communist regime. Because he was a disciple of Ayatollah Khui, a rival of Khomeini, Muhsini did not have a good relation with Khomeini's entourage, and he was even arrested in August 1980 in Iran, and the offices of the party in Tehran were closed down, after the Iranians claimed he was being financed by the CIA.[2]
Among the anti-communist resistance movements, Harakat espoused a moderate islamist line, which brought it close to the sunni Jamiat Islami faction, that had a similar outlook. Of all the Shia parties, Muhsini's movement was the most effective military force, and the only one that took part in active combat against communist and Soviet troops.[3]
He later joined the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan (Northern Alliance) against the Taliban. Ayatollah Muhsini has written more than 20 books about Islam.
There is one other living Grand Ayatollah in Afghanistan, Qorban Ali Kabli (Mohaqeq Kaboli) (born 1928). He is an ethnic Hazara and an active member of Hezb-e-Wahdat.
2. Rubin, Barnett (1995). The fragmentation of Afghanistan: State formation and collapse in the international system. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 222. ISBN   
3. Roy, Olivier (1990). Islam and resistance in Afghanistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 146. ISBN 
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Afghanistan's turbulent cleric
Asif Mohseni, the cleric behind a controversial family law, is complex and ambitious – in other words, an Afghan politician
By Nushin Arbabzadah
Saturday 18 April BST
Source: <
A new Shia family law has divided Afghanistan, revealing a nation struggling to come to terms with a common yet complex problem: how to reconcile traditional, religious values with the demands of the 21st century, which measures a nation's progress in terms of its treatment of women. The result is a cultural war between the traditionalists and the progressives. In between is a third group in whose view the controversy over the law is an unnecessary distraction from the country's more urgent problems. Why focus on a law whose sole function is to make legal what's already common practice when the country is facing the more serious problems of foreign occupation, extreme poverty and a corrupt central state perpetually on the verge of collapse? According to this third party, under such circumstances the focus on women's rights is simply misplaced, if not hypocritical. This is because the same western forces who oppose the law for its misogynist content are also the ones that create widows in Afghanistan when their air forces bomb the south and the east of the country in the war against terrorism.
This, in sum, is the situation as it appears on the surface. But digging a bit deeper under the surface, a more complex picture emerges. At the centre of this complex picture is Ayatollah Asif Mohseni, a Shia cleric and the architect of the new law. He's the owner of Tamadon (civilisation) TV, a privately owned television station with a visual outlook and religious content remarkably similar to Iranian state-run television channels. The night before the protest demonstration of 15 April, which ended in violence and made headlines around the world, the TV station repeatedly broadcast a message advising people to prevent family members attending the protest. In other words, the cleric had anticipated the protest and indirectly prepared the ground for the counter-protest, which resulted in broken windows and stones being pelted at demonstrators.
This, however, should not come as a surprise because Mohseni is far more than a prominent Shia cleric and TV station owner. He's a politician whose career has been far from uncontroversial. Mohseni, born in Kandahar in 1936, is the founder of the Islamic Movement of Afghanistan, a Shia anti-Soviet resistance movement combining various smaller group with numerous bases inside and outside the country. The party's foundation in the Iranian city of Qum in 1978 and the support Mohseni received from the Iranian state was criticised by some Iranian politicians who objected to Mohseni because he kept communication lines open with the rival Sunni resistance group based in Peshawar. According to his Iranian critics, as a leader of a Shia party, contact with rival Sunni groups meant a betrayal of the Shia political cause. They suspected Mohseni of secret deals with rival Sunni groups based in Pakistan despite receiving Iranian support. Later on, after the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan in February 1988, Mohseni managed to keep his options open, moving between Kabul, Qum and Islamabad where he multitasked as a teacher, politician and prolific writer of religious books, as well as a founder of Afghanistan's official Shia centre based in Kabul, Khatam-al Nabyeen, which was also the scene of the protest.
The secret to Mohseni's ability to move between the otherwise divided worlds of Iran and Pakistan, the Shias and the Sunnis, is his complex identity as a Qizilbash born in the pashtun region of Kandahar, which makes him a Shia with pashtun cultural roots. This is a remarkable combination and Mohseni has taken full advantage of it. An exploration of the realm of censor-free Afghan citizen blogging reveals him as a leader who's accused of believing in the principle of divide and rule. The present division in the Shia community, which is a direct result of Mohseni's proposed law, can be interpreted in this light. Mohseni's chief opponent, Muslim Fahimi, himself an insider in the Islamic Movement party, recently went even further, levelling serious accusations against the cleric on a private TV station. They included claims that he had made a deliberate attempt to fuel violence among the Shia Hazara community during the civil war years of the early 1990s; murdered a man who objected to Mohseni marrying his 14-year-old sister who had been entrusted to the cleric for religious education; and ordered the assassination of political rivals. As is typical in the largely unregulated media world of Afghanistan, none of the allegations were substantiated with evidence, even though the accuser claimed to posses such documentation.
However, the controversy surrounding Mohseni reveals that the cleric is a typical Afghan politician. He is an ambitious maverick who has his fingers in many pies, is venerated by his supporters and deeply reviled by his opponent. His complex identity, as a Shia leader born in Kandahar who speaks Pashto, Mohseni has the potential to act as a unifying figure, bringing together the Shias and the Sunnis, the pashtuns and the Hazaras. This, in turn, may explain why President Hamid Karzai didn't hesitate to sign the law, presumably to secure Mohseni's support in the upcoming presidential election. But what both Mohseni and Karzai neglected to take into account was the growth of a small, yet vocal indigenous women's rights group with both local and western support. Their protest made headlines across the globe, raising strong emotions and serious objection to the new law.
Karzai is now left with the impossible task of appeasing the western donors who finance his government while reconciling the progressive and traditionalist forces of Afghan society. Judging by the president's record so far, in all likelihood he'll manage to achieve a half-baked solution and Afghanistan will carry on as usual, deeply divided and in conflict with itself and the world.
Author profile: Nushin Arbabzadah was brought up in Kabul during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. Her first book, From Outside In: Refugees and British Society, was published in London by Arcadia in April She has also edited an anthology of journalistic writing from Muslim majority countries called No Ordinary Life: Being Young in the Worlds of Islam (London: British Council, 2005). She's a visiting scholar at UCLA's Center for India and South Asia
======================================================================================
Afghanistan
Deceased
Grand Ayatollah Shir Mohammad Qandahari
Grand Ayatollah Hojjatoleslam Ali Najafi
Current
Grand Ayatollah Qurban Murtaza-Ali Kaboli
Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Asef Mohseni
Ayatollah Mohsen Hojjat
Ayatollah Qasem Wali-Asr
Mosheni is the only Qizilbash to attain the title of Grand Ayatollah.
Prominent Hazara religious theologians with the title of Ayatollah were Muhammad Ali Modarassi, Sarwar Waeiz, Qurban Ali Muhaqqiq and Mir Hussain Sadiqi and Ayatollah Sadeqi Parwani
Source: <
Top photo: Mohammad Asif Mohseni (Mohsini’s constituency is mostly non-Hazara Shi’ites from Kandahar) is architect of the controversial Shi’a “rape law”
Bottom photo: Afghan Shi’a women protesting the “rape law” which argues that an Afghan Shi’a man can legally have sex with his wife even against her consent

29. Pir Syed Ahmad Gailani (b. 1932); Qadiri tariqat
Sufism in Afghanistan
Permeates society (both Afghan and Pakistani)
Influences poetry, literature, music, and folk customs
Offers alternative to rigid orthopraxy
Often blends pre-Islamic or localized beliefs and customs with Islamic practices (syncreticism)
Many sufi pir and waliullah acquire legendary reputation for heroic feats or miraculous healing powers
Background Notes:
Source:
The growth of Sufism (from suf, Arabic for wool; possibly referring to woolen robes worn by early ascetics) was another important development in the history of Islam. The great Sufi orders or brotherhoods (tariqa) were first established in the twelfth century by scholars disillusioned in their search for Truth through the intellectual application of the austere practices advocated by the various schools of Islamic doctrine. A belief in the oneness of man with God is central to Sufism. Sufis seek to achieve a personal communion with God during mystic moments of union brought about by various methods, including meditation, recitation of sacred phrases, breathing exercises, dancing, hymn singing, music, and physical gyrations.
Sufi religious life centers around a learned religious leader or spiritual guide referred to as shaykh (in Persian, pir) whose mystical teachings guide students (murids) along the path (tariqa) that leads each to the ecstacy of his own moment of intimacy with God. Relationships between the master and disciple are very close. Many famous Sufi shaykh attracted large bodies of followers, and the sites of their brotherhoods became not only renowned spiritual institutions, but also popular social and cultural community centers providing medical, educational, and welfare services, including soup kitchens for the poor and hungry. These centers oftentimes amassed considerable wealth from gifts from pilgrims and from endowments (awaqf; singular, waqf), an important institution providing community social services. With wealth they acquired social and political power. This building of a sense of an alternative community within Sufism threatened the status of established religious authorities (ulama), undermining their institutionalized perceptions of an universal, unified Islamic community (ummah) following the Shariah, the "straight path" of Islamic law. The orthodox ulama initially declared Sufism heretical, but over time came to tolerate it as long as its adherents abided by Islamic laws.
Sufi practices are found today among both Sunni and Shia communities, although it tends to be more widespread among Sunnis, perhaps because Shia attach great value to the intercession of saints and most Shia embrace mysticism and encourage emotional responses to God and to Shia martyrs, especially those connected with the tragedy of Karbala which is commemorated on Ashura, the 10th day of Moharram, when dramatic recitations, passion plays (taziya) and street processions, which include self-flagellation, take place.
Sufis describe their personal experiences in a vast variety of poetic expression. The poetry of the Sufis is considered the best in the Persian language, and among the most notable of all poetic styles. Particularly honored are Sadi and Hafiz of Shiraz in Iran, and Baydil from the Persian-speaking Moghal court of Delhi. Universally acclaimed Afghan Sufi poets include Ansari (eleventh century) and Jami (fifteenth century) of Herat, Sanayi of Ghazni (twelfth century) , and Rumi of Balkh (thirteenth century), the founder of the order of whirling dervishes, whose Mathnawi is considered by many to be the greatest poem ever written in Persian.
Pir Syed Ahmad Gailani (b. 1932); Qadiri tariqat

30. Wandering Sufis: Malang, Qalander, or Fakir
Itinerant sufis who wander the country begging for alms (similar to the Hindu sadhu); often gather at ziarats and for urs
Some venerated (if truly pious), some distrusted (as charlatans and dope-smoking social “drop-outs”)
Shams-e malang, shab-e palang: “In daytime, a holy man… but at night,…a leopard (predator)”
In past, some renowned for miraculous powers or having defeated djinn, dragons, or monsters
The photo (unattributed) depicts a colorful Malang begging for alms at the Blue Masjid in Mazar-e Sharif
Background Information:
Source: M.H. Sidky, “Malang, Sufis, and Mystics: An Ethnographic Study of Shamanism in Afghanistan,” Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 49, No. 2 (1990), pp. 275 – 301; downloaded at <
“…The malang is an example of syncreticism, the blending of Islam with elements of Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, or even older shamanic and animistic beliefs (in Afghanistan)”
--- M. H. Sidky

31. Schools of Jurisprudence and Shi’a Sub-sects by Region
Image Source: <

32. Islamic Sects, Schools of Law, and Denominations
(al-jama’ah or tyfah)
▪ Schools of Law
(madh’hab)
▪ Denominations
(maslak)
** Self-identify as non-Muslim

33. Islam in Afghanistan: S3T vs. R3P
Tension between
two tendancies
Tension
S3T
R3P
► Soft (pluralist)
► Sufism
► Syncretic(ism)
► Traditional
Key figures:
malang and pir
► Rigid (literalist)
► Revivalist*
► Radicalized**
► Puritanical
Key figures:
mujahidin and taliban
Instructor Notes:
To summarize, as mention during our earlier examination of Islam, --- Islam as it is locally practiced and understood by its practitioners in Afghanistan, --- is not monolithic.
In fact, some scholars have observed and argued that part of what makes Islam unique in Afghanistan is the tension that exists between two somewhat polarized competing interpretations, namely --- the softer more accommodative or pluralist interpretation represented by Sufism and many of the folk practices (from amulets to shrine visitation) and a harsher, puritanical or even radicalized interpretation represented by Deobandism and other religious-ideological movements such as Salafi-Jihadism and Wahhabism.
(Note: This was written by T. Hollifield during personal non-billable time and part of book draft (in progress); --- treat as © T. Hollifield)
mullah, maulana, and some mujahidin
* Salafi (Muslim Youth Organization) ** “Jihadi” (Taliban, HQN, AQ)

34. Pashtunwali – The Way of the Pashtun
Unclassified
Pashtunwali – The Way of the Pashtun
Melmastia
Hospitality for all visitors
Ghayrat (or Nang)
Personal honor, self respect, dignity
Asylum; Acceptance of a surrender; Protection of those who seek it
Nanawati
Badal
Justice; Revenge against wrongdoers
Tureh
Bravery; Defense of land and property
Instructor Notes
Badal – emphasize that the concept of justice in AFG is different from the concept of justice in the west. In AFG, justice is dispensed based on what is best for the group (clan, tribe, etc.) rather than individual justice (being made whole).
Talking Points
Unwritten, ethical code that dates back to pre-Islamic times that is still widely used by Pashtuns world-wide.
Eight main principles - Melmastia is hospitality for all visitors. This is the tenet of Pashtunwali that Mullah Omar cited when he refused to turn over Osama bin Laden to the U.S. OBL is a guest and is owed protection under Pashtunwali.
- Ghayrat or Nang – maintenance of one’s self-respect and dignity. Respect begins at home.
Nanawati – concept of protection given to a person who request protection from his/her enemies. It can also be used by the vanquished to request sanctuary and ask for forgiveness. It can also be used by people running from the law until the situation is resolved. In the case of OBL, Mullah Omar requested evidence of OBL’s involvement before turning him over to the U.S.
Badal – this tenet seeks justice or takes revenge on a wrong-doer. The pursuit of justice may last decades or hundreds of years and is ended with the shedding of blood. This can lead to blood feuds can involve entire tribes.
Tureh – Defensive of land, property, family and women.
Sabat – loyalty must be paid to one’s family, friends and tribal members. To be disloyal brings shame on themselves and their families.
Namus – defense of women from vocal and physical harm.
Tarburwali – moral value and duty
Other ethnic groups:
Sabat
Loyalty to friends, relatives, tribe
Namus
Honor of women (honor of country)
“Law of the Cousins” – hatred, rivalry
Tarburwali
Unclassified

35. Other Codes of Honor Practiced by non-Pashtuns in Afghanistan
Unclassified
Other Codes of Honor
Practiced by non-Pashtuns in Afghanistan
Abdur Zadegi (Tajik)
Jealousy
Inheritance
Competition
Siyal Misyar (Hazara)
Baluchmiyar (Baluch)
Yasa-e Moghali (Uzbek)
Very prevalent in Northern Afghanistan
Instructor Notes
Present the bullets using the talking points.
Talking Points
Other ethnic groups in Afghanistan, such as the groups we just looked at, have codes of honor but they are not tribally based as these groups are not tribally organized.
Abdur Zadegi represents a code of honor practiced by non-Pashtuns. It addresses issues of inheritance of property, jealously and competition. These are issues that are often arise among family members in western cultures.
Rivalry stems from inheritance of property, jealousy and competition. Abdur Zadagi is a kind of jealousy and competition among fraternal cousins.
Unclassified

36. Village Governance Executive Judicial Legislative 36 Unclassified
Karbalayi
Judicial
Module Contributors
Module Duration
Estimated Time
Exercise Objective
Required Materials
Instructor Notes
Talking Points
(Hazara)
Maraka
Legislative
(Uzbek)
Unclassified 36

37. Traditional Conflict Resolution
Mullahs find chiga (common rally cause) to unit local tribes against real or perceived external threat
Tribal elites sidelined and Mullahs/young Pashtuns assume leadership
Pashtun society back in equilibrium; elders/elites playing lead roles at different levels of Jirgas
Elites take back seat, don’t openly challenge mullah for fear of being labeled as supporters of infidels
The closet comparison in the U.S. to the Mullah is probably a “preacher” especially in the American South.
Most Southern Preachers have little actual religious training but were “called by the lord” to preach and are excepted by the community as the resident religious authority, even though they are sometimes the subject of gentle ridicule.
A Maulana or Malvi implies advanced religious training, an the American equivalent might be a pastor that has attended and graduated from seminary school.
While the most general usage of "mullah" is one learned in Islamic law, it has taken on a connotation of an individual, strict in enforcing law and leading prayer, but not necessarily a trained cleric or scholar (alim, plural ulema). Often, the mullah is a simple preacher with relatively little status.
In Afghanistan (and much of South Asia), more veneration and respect is shown towards a Syed (a descent from the family of the Prophet) or a Pir, the sometimes hereditary leader of a Sufi order, for their supposed strong personal relationship to Allah.[1]
Historically, there has always been a balance of power or mutual tolerance between the village mullahs and sufi mystics,…
…However, ever since the Soviet Invasion (and perhaps earlier, with the arrival of Deobandi ulema in Afghanistan in late 19th century), the influence of more hard-line interpretative traditions (i.e. Deobandi, Ahl-e Hadith / salafi) with their ultra-orthodox religious scholarship (which tends to view many traditional sufi folk practices as bidah or shrik) have often clashed with or attempted to check the power and authority of sufism in the region. [2]
Richard F. Nyrop and Donald M. Seekins, ed. (January 1986), Religion, Afghanistan Country Study, Foreign Area Studies, The American University
2. Hassan Abbas (2005), Pakistan's Drift into Extremism: Allah, the Army, and America's War on Terror, M.E. Sharpe, ISBN , pp. 3-4
==================================================================================================
Additional Information:
Source: <
An important figure in Muslim life in Afghanistan is the mullah (a male religious leader or teacher). Any man who can recite the Koran (the sacred scripture of Islam) from memory can be a mullah, but the mullah may not understand either the words or the meaning, since the book was written and is memorized in Arabic, which is not a local language. The mullah conducts the Friday sermon and prayers, marriages, and funerals.
Mullahs also teach the laws and doctrines of Islam to both adults and children. Mullahs arbitrate local disputes, based upon Islamic legal principles, and they are also called upon to provide advice and resolution of many other physical, social, and personal problems, including such things as medicines, local water disputes, or a family feud. In some of the more remote rural areas, the local mullah and the local khan (landlord) dictate what their followers may or may not do.
Mullahs retreat to original role as clerics, elders/elites take back leadership
Tribesman tire of conflict and question wisdom of war and mullah’s leadership
Elites, sensing mood shift, mobilize elders to end conflict/restore peace

38. So…what happened? Internal External Pan-Islamic Ideology
Unclassified
So…what happened?
Internal
Pan-Islamic Ideology
Muslim Youth Organization: Burhanuddin Rabbani, Ahmad Shah Massoud, Abdul Rasul Sayyaf, and Hekmatyar
Mujahideen/Arabs supporting “jihad” in Afghanistan
External
Radicalization of Pakistani Society under Zia ul-Haq
Destroy traditional Pashtun Islam and replace with an Islam that respected and acknowledged outside authority
Influx of Saudi ideology
Prevention of Shia Iranian influence
Targeting of Traditional Tribal Structure by Soviet, Taliban and Tehrik-e Taliban Pakistan (TTP)
Instructor Notes
Present the bullets using the talking points.
Talking Points
Other ethnic groups in Afghanistan, such as the groups we just looked at, have codes of honor but they are not tribally based as these groups are not tribally organized.
Abdur Zadegi represents a code of honor practiced by non-Pashtuns. It addresses issues of inheritance of property, jealously and competition. These are issues that are often arise among family members in western cultures.
Rivalry stems from inheritance of property, jealousy and competition. Abdur Zadagi is a kind of jealousy and competition among fraternal cousins.
Unclassified

39. The “Afghan Arabs” (1980s – Present)
Arab / other Muslim fighters who came to help Mujahideen
Questionable effectiveness as
fighting force
Attained hero-status for role in
defeat of atheist superpower
Many stayed and married local Pashtun women; formed strong bonds with tribes in FATA, RC East/South
Afghan and Arab Mujahidin cross Pakistan Border to fight Anti-Soviet Jihad, 1985
Afghan Arabs (also known as Arab-Afghans) were Arab and other Muslim fighters who came to Afghanistan during and following the Soviet-Afghan War to help fellow Muslims fight Soviets and pro-Soviet Afghans. Many were inspired by the fatwa and personal example of Shaikh Abdullah Azzam.
Not all were Arabs, of course, some were from as far way as the Philippines or Malaysia. After the Soviets left Afghanistan, many returned to their home countries to wage jihad against their governments. A good example, is the Philippines terrorist organization known and “Abu Sayyaf,” named in honor of Abdul Rasul Sayyaf (pause to ask: does anyone have his card?) who is presently a leader in the Afghan Parliament (which confuses, angers, and perplexes as many Afghans as it does some of us --- who often ask why America fights this terrorist organization in Southeast Asia but allows its honorary founder to be in the Afghan government).
At any rate, while their military contributions to the jihad were not always that significant, --- many were content to let the Afghans do most of the fighting and heavy lifting, --- which is fairly characteristic of Arabs, (pause to ask: has anyone here spent anytime living or working amongst Arabs? I mean aside from Iraqis? Was that your experience?).
As the war against the Soviets went on, many of the later Arab arrivals included takfiri Egyptians and hardcore salafi Arabs began to treat some of the Afghans in a very condescending manner because of their sufi-influenced folk practices and there was a great amount of frictions between the two groups. Many Afghans referred to these volunteers as diwani Ar-rab (“crazy Arabs”) because of their willingness to embrace martyrdom and poor field-craft (like setting up white tents which made easy targets for Soviet aircraft).
However, some Arabs took local Pashtun wives, --- most likely from poorer families with few other options or by families that saw it as either honorable or to their economic advantage, which is one of the many harsh realities of life in the FATA and Afghan sarhad (frontier regions along Eastern and Southern border). In these cases, some Arabs stayed or else used these marriage alliances to their advantage, returning occasionally whenever it suited their purpose. And as is well-known today, many of these individuals ended up fighting jihad in Bosnia and as foot-soldiers for Al Qaeda. It is these long-standing alliances, --- cemented by bonds of marriage, --- that have allowed AQ to maintain its safehavens in the FATA, NWFP, and Pashtun areas of Baluchistan Province to include Quetta.
(Note: The script above was written by Tim Hollifield)
=====================================================================================
Background Information for Instructor:
From wikipedia – see entry for “Islamic mujahid movement”
Afghan Arabs (also known as Arab-Afghans) were Arab and other Muslim fighters who came to Afghanistan during and following the Soviet-Afghan War to help fellow Muslims fight Soviets and pro-Soviet Afghans.
Observers and journalists covering the war have cast doubt on their significance as a fighting force, but within the Muslim Arab world they achieved near hero-status for their association with the defeat of the atheist, Communist superpower that was the Soviet Union.
Many returned to their home countries to wage jihad against their governments. Their name notwithstanding, none were Afghans and some were not Arabs, but Turkic, Malay or from some other non-Arab Muslim ethnicity. The most famous among their number is Usama bin Laden.
These later expatriate volunteers included many sectarian Salafi and Wahhabi who alienated their hosts with their aloof manner and disdain for the Sufi Islam practiced by most Afghans. While the first Arab Afghans were "for the most part" welcomed by native Afghan mujahidin, by the end of the Soviet-Afghan war, there was a great deal of mutual antagonism between the two groups. The Afghan mujahidin resented "being told they were not good Muslims" and called the expatriate volunteers "Ikhwanis" or "Wahhabis".
This hostility may have played an important role in the relatively easy manner in which the U.S. overthrew the Taliban in 2001 when Afghans turned against these foreigners.
However minimal the impact of the "Afghan" Arabs on the war against the Soviets, the return of the volunteers to their home countries was not a "sideshow." In Foreign Affairs Peter Bergen writes:
“The foreign volunteers in Afghanistan saw the Soviet defeat as a victory for Islam against a superpower that had invaded a Muslim country. Estimates of the number of foreign fighters who fought in Afghanistan begin in the low thousands; some spent years in combat, while others came only for what amounted to a jihad vacation. The jihadists gained legitimacy and prestige from their triumph both within the militant community and among ordinary Muslims, as well as the confidence to carry their jihad to other countries where they believed Muslims required assistance. When veterans of the guerrilla campaign returned home with their experience, ideology, and weapons, they destabilized once-tranquil countries and inflamed already unstable ones.”
After the war, many foreign mujahideen stayed in Afghanistan and took Afghan wives. The Afghan Arabs served as the essential core of the foot soldiers of Osama bin Laden's Al Qaeda, bin Laden being seen, according to journalist Lawrence Wright, as "the undisputed leader of the Arab Afghans" by fall of 1989.
Others returned "with their experience, ideology, and weapons," to their home countries, often proceeding to fight jihad against the government there. The most extreme case was Algeria where jihadis fought the government in a bloody civil war that cost 150, ,000 lives.
Also, many of them went to Bosnia to fight against Bosnian Serbs and Croats.
Taliban era
In the mid- and late-1990s, the Afghan Arabs, in the form of the Wahhabi-oriented al-Qaeda, became more influential in Afghanistan helping and influencing the Taliban. Several hundred Arab-Afghans participated in the 1997 and 1998 Taliban offensives in the north and helped the Taliban carry out the massacres of the Shia Hazaras there. Several hundred more Arab-Afghans, based in the Rishkor army garrison outside Kabul, fought on the Kabul front against General Ahmed Shah Massoud. At the same time the Taliban's ideology changed. Until the "Taliban's contact with the Arab-Afghans and their [the Taliban's] pan-Islamic ideology was non-existent."
By 1996 and 1998, al Qaeda felt comfortable enough in the sanctuary given them to issue a declaration of war against Americans and later a fatwa to kill Americans and their allies. "The Arab-Afghans had come full circle. From being mere appendages of the Afghan jihad and the Cold War in the 1980s they had taken centre stage for the Afghans, neighboring countries and the west in the 1990s." This was followed by al Qaeda 1998 American embassy bombings in African and the September 11, 2001 attacks.
Following the 9/11 attack, America attacked Afghanistan and deposed the Taliban, ending the heyday of the Afghan Arabs.
During the American campaign in Afghanistan in late 2001, many coherent units of Arab fighters were destroyed by JDAMs. Some Arab fighters have been held by Afghan tribesman for ransom paid by Americans

40. Mujahideen Groups and Orientations
Leader
Party
Supporters
Orientation
Notes
Gulbuddin Hekmatyar
Hizb-e Islam
Eastern Pashtuns, Pashai, Nuristanis,(Konar, Nuristani, Laghman, Kunduz)
Islamist b
Younis Khalis
Hizb-e Islam Khalis
Eastern Pashtuns (Nangarhar)
Burhanuddin Rabbani
Jamiat-e Islami
Tajiks and Uzbeks (Panjshir and Northern Alliance) b
Abdul Rabb Rasul Sayyaf
Ittehad-al Islami
KSA, Gulf states, Ikwan al-Muslimeen
Islamist (Wahhabi) b
Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi
Harakat-e Inqilib-e Islam
Eastern and Southern Pashtuns (Logar)
Traditionalist (village-based) and Islamist
Pir Sayyid Ahmed Gailani
Mohaz Mille Islami
Nationalist/Pro-Democracy Pashtuns, Qadiri tariqat
Nationalist / Royalist, pro-West b
Sibghatullah Mojaddedi
Jabhe Mille Nejad
Nationalist Pashtuns, Nasqhbandi tariqat
Nationalist / Royalist b
Jamiat-e-Islami (“Islamic Society”)
Hezb-i-Islami (“Islamic Party”)
Mohaz Milli Islami (“National Islamic Front of Afghanistan”)
Harakat-i-Inqilib-i-Islami (“Islamic Revolutionary Party”)
Jabhe Mille Nejad (“National Rescue Front”)

41. The Taliban and Sharia Law
Pre-Taliban rural governance largely rooted in Pashtunwali, Jirgas/Shuras
Pre-Taliban rural religion largely rooted in folk Islam
Taliban caught between Pashtun ethnic Nationalism and supra-ethnic Islamic identity
Taliban governance firmly rooted in fundamentalist religious law
Ministry for Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice
Demoted role of jirgas/shuras
Claimed some aspects of Pashtunwali were against Islam
However, collectivism gives them credibility (Quetta Shura)
The closet comparison in the U.S. to the Mullah is probably a “preacher” especially in the American South.
Most Southern Preachers have little actual religious training but were “called by the lord” to preach and are excepted by the community as the resident religious authority, even though they are sometimes the subject of gentle ridicule.
A Maulana or Malvi implies advanced religious training, an the American equivalent might be a pastor that has attended and graduated from seminary school.
While the most general usage of "mullah" is one learned in Islamic law, it has taken on a connotation of an individual, strict in enforcing law and leading prayer, but not necessarily a trained cleric or scholar (alim, plural ulema). Often, the mullah is a simple preacher with relatively little status.
In Afghanistan (and much of South Asia), more veneration and respect is shown towards a Syed (a descent from the family of the Prophet) or a Pir, the sometimes hereditary leader of a Sufi order, for their supposed strong personal relationship to Allah.[1]
Historically, there has always been a balance of power or mutual tolerance between the village mullahs and sufi mystics,…
…However, ever since the Soviet Invasion (and perhaps earlier, with the arrival of Deobandi ulema in Afghanistan in late 19th century), the influence of more hard-line interpretative traditions (i.e. Deobandi, Ahl-e Hadith / salafi) with their ultra-orthodox religious scholarship (which tends to view many traditional sufi folk practices as bidah or shrik) have often clashed with or attempted to check the power and authority of sufism in the region. [2]
Richard F. Nyrop and Donald M. Seekins, ed. (January 1986), Religion, Afghanistan Country Study, Foreign Area Studies, The American University
2. Hassan Abbas (2005), Pakistan's Drift into Extremism: Allah, the Army, and America's War on Terror, M.E. Sharpe, ISBN , pp. 3-4
==================================================================================================
Additional Information:
Source: <
An important figure in Muslim life in Afghanistan is the mullah (a male religious leader or teacher). Any man who can recite the Koran (the sacred scripture of Islam) from memory can be a mullah, but the mullah may not understand either the words or the meaning, since the book was written and is memorized in Arabic, which is not a local language. The mullah conducts the Friday sermon and prayers, marriages, and funerals.
Mullahs also teach the laws and doctrines of Islam to both adults and children. Mullahs arbitrate local disputes, based upon Islamic legal principles, and they are also called upon to provide advice and resolution of many other physical, social, and personal problems, including such things as medicines, local water disputes, or a family feud. In some of the more remote rural areas, the local mullah and the local khan (landlord) dictate what their followers may or may not do.

42. A Strange Mix: Folk Islam and Salafism
Salt collected from “Arab Qabiristan” (graveyard) in Kandahar for its blessing and used as miracle cure
In the east, many shrines, totems, graveyards destroyed by wahhabi / salafi Arabs
Local population killed those responsible
Example of religious syncreticism and complexity of debate concerning what is cultural versus religious tradition
My notes: As we’ve just discussed, in Afghanistan as in most Islamic countries, a special reverence is reserved for shaheed, or martyrs.
However, many Deobandi, Salafi, and certainly Wahhabi Muslims feel that the veneration of the dead that many traditional Muslims practice (especially in countries or regions where Sufism and its associated folk practices are prevalent) goes too far and borders on shrik (idolatry).
Here is an interesting case study that shows, --- even in areas like the Pashtun belt that lean towards or have become more heavily influenced by these reformist and more ultra-orthodox interpretations, the pluralism of Sufism and it’s associated practices remains dominant and finds a way to accommodate two seemingly opposite interpretations of Islam.
The Al Qaeda Arabs buried in this cemetary are surely turning over in their graves!
Shaheed (male) or shaheeda (female) Honorific title for Muslims who die fulfilling a religious commandment, or while fighting in jihad

43. Folk Traditions and Superstitions
Djinn possession often attributed as cause of mental illness, addiction, or irrational behavior
Woman prays at Sufi shrine in Multan
There many folk traditions and customs that are practiced in Pakistan, some of which, --- such as the wearing of gemstones believed to have curative or protective powers, --- likely originated in pre-Islamic times.
The Ta'weez (also spelled Tawiz or Ta’wiz) is a locket or amulet containing verses from the Qur’an, Ahadith, or other Islamic prayers and symbols. As a general rule it is worn with the belief that it will repel any evil intended for the wearer and will also bring him luck. The word Ta'weez is also used to refer to other amulets used in Islam. It may be a pendant, carvings on metal, or even framed duas but usually it is simply written on a piece of paper which is then folded in a particular matter and tucked into a sown leather pouch which is most often worn around the neck on a leather cord but may sometimes be tied around the arm.
Another common practice is pilgrimage or visiting of od shrines known as Ziyārat (also spelled Ziarat; from Ziyārah (Arabic: زيارة‎ meaning: "Visit") is a pilgrimage to sites associated with Muhammad, his family members and descendants (including the Shī‘ah Imāms), his companions, or other venerated figures in Islām, such as the Prophets, venerable Sufi saints or Islāmic scholars esteemed for their piety or religious wisdom. In the Persian-influenced world (modern Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India) famous poets may also be venerated. These sites of pilgrimage usually have a dargah (covered gravesite, mausoleum, or tomb) but may also include or be located adjacent to mosques, graves, battlefields, mountains, and caves.
Some Salafi and Deobandi authorities disavow such practices and consider them to be a form of shrik (idolatry), bidah (innovation), or kala jadu (black magic or witchcraft) which is strictly forbidden in their interpretation of Islam. Nonetheless, many common folk, ---esp. those who are less educated or given to superstitious beliefs, --- regularly engage in such practices.
Falgeer (Palmistry Fortune Tellers) in Mazar-e Sharif with Falnameh collection
Ta’weez, protective amulet containing prayers or verses from Qur’an or Ahadith

44. The Way Ahead Enable traditional village governance
Include both religious and secular representatives
Achieve balance between Mullahs and Maliks
Reach out to moderate Islamic voices (i.e. Jordanians) who want to assist with de-radicalization
Practice cultural and religious judo (read the Quran, Hadiths, understand Codes of Honor)
Spend funds on religious items (mosques, shrines, prayer rugs, etc.)
And remember, be patient and tolerant…
The closet comparison in the U.S. to the Mullah is probably a “preacher” especially in the American South.
Most Southern Preachers have little actual religious training but were “called by the lord” to preach and are excepted by the community as the resident religious authority, even though they are sometimes the subject of gentle ridicule.
A Maulana or Malvi implies advanced religious training, an the American equivalent might be a pastor that has attended and graduated from seminary school.
While the most general usage of "mullah" is one learned in Islamic law, it has taken on a connotation of an individual, strict in enforcing law and leading prayer, but not necessarily a trained cleric or scholar (alim, plural ulema). Often, the mullah is a simple preacher with relatively little status.
In Afghanistan (and much of South Asia), more veneration and respect is shown towards a Syed (a descent from the family of the Prophet) or a Pir, the sometimes hereditary leader of a Sufi order, for their supposed strong personal relationship to Allah.[1]
Historically, there has always been a balance of power or mutual tolerance between the village mullahs and sufi mystics,…
…However, ever since the Soviet Invasion (and perhaps earlier, with the arrival of Deobandi ulema in Afghanistan in late 19th century), the influence of more hard-line interpretative traditions (i.e. Deobandi, Ahl-e Hadith / salafi) with their ultra-orthodox religious scholarship (which tends to view many traditional sufi folk practices as bidah or shrik) have often clashed with or attempted to check the power and authority of sufism in the region. [2]
Richard F. Nyrop and Donald M. Seekins, ed. (January 1986), Religion, Afghanistan Country Study, Foreign Area Studies, The American University
2. Hassan Abbas (2005), Pakistan's Drift into Extremism: Allah, the Army, and America's War on Terror, M.E. Sharpe, ISBN , pp. 3-4
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Additional Information:
Source: <
An important figure in Muslim life in Afghanistan is the mullah (a male religious leader or teacher). Any man who can recite the Koran (the sacred scripture of Islam) from memory can be a mullah, but the mullah may not understand either the words or the meaning, since the book was written and is memorized in Arabic, which is not a local language. The mullah conducts the Friday sermon and prayers, marriages, and funerals.
Mullahs also teach the laws and doctrines of Islam to both adults and children. Mullahs arbitrate local disputes, based upon Islamic legal principles, and they are also called upon to provide advice and resolution of many other physical, social, and personal problems, including such things as medicines, local water disputes, or a family feud. In some of the more remote rural areas, the local mullah and the local khan (landlord) dictate what their followers may or may not do.

45. Religious Etiquette
Mosques (masjid) normally closed to non-Muslims unless invited or escorted
Always remove shoes
- socks or bare feet are acceptable
- cover head in masjid (men and women)
Men and women pray in separate spaces
Avoid crossing qibla (direction of prayer)
Polite to state “Peace Be Upon Him” after referring to “Prophet Muhammad”
Refer to Isa, Ali and Rashidun as “Hazrat” (Arabic honorific; literal translation = “Great Presence”)
A Muslim performs wudhu (washing before prayer). Muslims wash in this order: hands, mouth, face, arms up to the elbows, then they wipe their heads to dampen their hair, and lastly they wash their feet. This is to show that they are clean in body and in mind before they go to pray.
Background Information:
Source: <
Why Muslims Take their Shoes Before Entering the Masjid / 21 April 2008
Some people, if they were asked why Muslims remove their shoes in a mosque, would respond by vaguely saying "out of respect." Respect for what, or for whom? Do Muslims need to pray with their shoes off? Some people might say yes, others might say no. The answer is: not unless their shoes have impurities on them. So it isn't necessarily for the prayer, but is it to respect the space? I have heard some people say that the masjid is "sacred ground," like when Moses (s) was told to remove his shoes in front of the burning bush because he was on sacred ground. But refer to a hadith reported in Sahih Muslim where the Messenger of Allah (s) in explaining the differences between other messengers and himself (s), says "the earth has been made sacred and pure and mosque for me, so whenever the time of prayer comes for any one of you he should pray whenever he is." If the earth has been made sacred, pure, and a mosque, then how can we say that inside the walls of a mosque are sacred and we must take our shoes off?
In fact, we have traditions about the Prophet Muhammad (s) praying with his shoes on. Anas bin Malik was asked the question, if Muhammad prayed with shoes on, and he answered yes (reported in Bukhari and Muslim.) But the condition about the shoes being free of impurities comes from another hadith in Sunan Abu Dawood, on the authority of Abu Sa'id Al-Khudri. In this hadith, the Prophet Muhammad (s) was leading his companions in prayer, and during the prayer he removed them and placed them to his left. His companions copied the behavior, removing their shoes, and at the end of the prayer the Messenger of Allah (s) asked them why they did so, and of course they replied that they saw him remove his shoes. At this point, the Prophet Muhammad (s) explained that the Angel Gabriel had come to him during the prayer and told him that there was some filth on them, which is why he (s) removed them. So he told his Companions at that point to check their shoes before coming to a mosque and if they were dirty, to wipe them off and then pray in them. Given that story, one might expect for Muslims to pray in their shoes in the mosque. And in fact, Muslims were instructed (according to another hadith in Sunan Abu Dawood) by the Prophet Muhammad (s) to pray with their shoes on to differentiate themselves from the Jews. So returning to the question--why remove our shoes? And the answer has to do with the different nature of our mosques today, and our shoes. Because walking on the carpet with shoes will soil it, we should remove them. And that is the fatwa on this particular issue. Additionally, the carpets are considered waqf, meaning they should be preserved and maintained in good condition. Dirt on the carpets is likely to upset the people who will be praying on them, which is why we should take our shoes off. For a fatwa on whether to pray with or without shoes see: < So, simply because shoes carry dirt, and dirt will soil the carpets on which people prostrate, it is not appropriate to walk on the carpets with shoes. It is perfectly fine, however, to pray with shoes when praying outside the mosque--like at home, at work, in the park, etc.--so long as you ensure they are free from impurities. Some people, if they were asked why Muslims remove their shoes in a mosque, would respond by vaguely saying "out of respect." Respect for what, or for whom? Do Muslims need to pray with their shoes off? Some people might say yes, others might say no. The answer is: not unless their shoes have impurities on them. So it isn't necessarily for the prayer, but is it to respect the space? I have heard some people say that the masjid is "sacred ground," like when Moses (s) was told to remove his shoes in front of the burning bush because he was on sacred ground. But refer to a hadith reported in Sahih Muslim where the Messenger of Allah (s) in explaining the differences between other messengers and himself (s), says "the earth has been made sacred and pure and mosque for me, so whenever the time of prayer comes for any one of you he should pray whenever he is." If the earth has been made sacred, pure, and a mosque, then how can we say that inside the walls of a mosque are sacred and we must take our shoes off?
At the mosque, on the other hand, if you are taking off your shoes to walk on the carpet, please be sure to neatly stow them on the appropriate racks.
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For additional discussion on Islamic etiquette (in accordance with Sunnat) see: < or <

46. Summary
Identities in Afghanistan are multi-layered and complex, with religious affiliations as only one of many layers
Understanding Islam can greatly assist in building rapport, especially in an ethnically/tribally diverse society such as Afghanistan where Islam can be a unifying factor
Religious identity in Afghanistan is not monolithic but may be characterized by a tension between older pluralist and more recent reformist (or extremist) interpretive traditions
Islam permeates all aspects of society, but has historically served as moral guidelines, not as an all-encompassing governance mechanism

47. Questions and Discussion
Image Source: <

48. Recommended Reading (Articles)
Mad Mullahs, Opportunists, and Family Connections: The Violent Pashtun Cycle by Tribal Analysis Center (
Islam and Islamism in Afghanistan by Kristen Mendoza (
Jirga System in Tribal Life by Dr. Sherzaman Taizi ( TAC/Jirga%20System%20in%20Tribal%20Life.pdf
Pashtun Tribal Dynamics by Tribal Analysis Center ( TAC/Pashtun%20Tribal%20Dynamics.pdf)
Doing Pashto: Pashtunwali as the ideal of honourable behaviour and tribal life among the Pashtuns by Lutz Rzehak ( afghanistan.com/uploads/ LR-Pashtunwali-FINAL.pdf)
How Tribal are the Taleban? by Thomas Ruttig ( afghanistan.com/uploads/ TR-HowTribalAretheTaleban-FINAL.pdf)
I’d like to caveat that this is by no means a comprehensive list.
Because this subject matter, ---Islam and the rise of Political Islam / Islamism especially as it relates to the AFPAK region, --- is an increasingly popular and growing field, in both in academia and in the Defense and Security sectors, new literature appears almost daily.
And of late, there have been so many excellent journal articles published that it would be impossible to list even a few of the best.
However, these books are some of my favorites, --- either because, at least to date, they are considered seminal texts in this particular filed of study or because they are especially informative but still accessible to a general audience.

49. Recommended Reading (Articles)
Being Pashtun - Being Muslim by Bernt Glatzner (
Legal Authorities in the Afghan Legal System ( ) by Bruce Etling (
Tribal Law of Pashtunwali and Women’s Legislative Authority by Palwasha Kakar (
Local Governance in Rural Afghanistan by Human Terrain System-Afghanistan (
The Political Economy of Customary Village Organizations in Rural Afghanistan by Jennifer Brick (
Hindustani Fanatics, India’s Pashtuns, and Deobandism – Connections by Tribal Analysis Center ( TAC/Hindustani%20Fanatics.pdf)
I’d like to caveat that this is by no means a comprehensive list.
Because this subject matter, ---Islam and the rise of Political Islam / Islamism especially as it relates to the AFPAK region, --- is an increasingly popular and growing field, in both in academia and in the Defense and Security sectors, new literature appears almost daily.
And of late, there have been so many excellent journal articles published that it would be impossible to list even a few of the best.
However, these books are some of my favorites, --- either because, at least to date, they are considered seminal texts in this particular filed of study or because they are especially informative but still accessible to a general audience.

50. Recommended Reading

51. Recommended Reading (Books)
No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam (2006) by Reza Aslan
Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes (2009) by Mir Tamim Ansary
Jirgas: The Pashtun Way of Conflict Resolution (2009) by Dr. Khan Idris
After the Prophet: The Epic Story of the Shia-Sunni Split (2009) by Lesley Hazleton
God’s Terrorists: The Wahhabi Cult and the Modern Roots of Modern Jihad (2006) by Charles Allen
Islam in Tribal Societies: From the Atlas to the Indus (1984) Edited by Akbar S. Ahmed and David M. Hart
Chapter 9 - Holier than Thou: Islam in Three Tribal Societies by Richard Tapper
Chapter 10 – Tribal Warfare in Afghanistan and Pakistan: A Reflection of the Segmentary Lineage System by Louis Dupree
Chapter 13 – Religious Presence and Symbolism in Pukhtun Society by Akbar S. Ahmed
I’d like to caveat that this is by no means a comprehensive list.
Because this subject matter, ---Islam and the rise of Political Islam / Islamism especially as it relates to the AFPAK region, --- is an increasingly popular and growing field, in both in academia and in the Defense and Security sectors, new literature appears almost daily.
And of late, there have been so many excellent journal articles published that it would be impossible to list even a few of the best.
However, these books are some of my favorites, --- either because, at least to date, they are considered seminal texts in this particular filed of study or because they are especially informative but still accessible to a general audience.