1. Kanupriya Gupta, Kevin Shih, Anna Tolleson
Immunology
Kanupriya Gupta, Kevin Shih, Anna Tolleson

2. Immune System
Immune System – a network of tissues and cells that work together to protect the body from harmful pathogens
Divided into two parts: Innate and Adaptive
Innate - provide general protection against pathogens, parasites, toxins, drugs, and cancer cells
Adaptive - specifically focused on certain pathogens
Located in both plants and animals
Plants and animals have a variety of chemical defenses against infections that affect dynamic homeostasis
Cells communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells or from a distance via chemical signaling.
Biological systems are affected by disruptions to their dynamic homeostasis

3. Pathogen Pathogen – any agent that causes disease or infection
Bacteria
Fungus
Virus

4. How Pathogens Work The pathogen enters the organism’s system/body
Depending on the type of pathogen - attach itself to cell
Inject genetic material into the cell
Cause the cell to die - burst as more of the pathogen is made

5. Parasitic Pathogens Need the body of host Reason why - immune system
Provide perfect place for growth
Reproduction
Nutrients
Ability to transport -
new areas
Require cells
Reason why - immune system

6. Invertebrates - Innate Immune System
•Insects
–Exoskeleton
•Outside barrier
–Barriers in openings
•Blocks infections
–Utilize enzyme: lysozyme
»Breaks down bacterial cell walls - helps destroy/neutralize pathogen

7. Continued –The process through which a cell - ingests another cell
•Internal defenses
–Hemocytes – blood cells
•Travel through the hemolymph – insect circulatory fluids
•Carry out the process of phagocytosis
–The process through which a cell - ingests another cell
•Other response - trigger production of chemicals to destroy pathogen
–Plasmodium
•Secrete antimicrobial peptides – short chains of amino acids - travel through body - kill fungus and bacteria - disrupt plasma membranes

8. Vertebrates – Innate Immune System
•Same idea as the invertebrates
–Barriers - outer defense (skin) - acts as a barrier against pathogens
•Mucus membranes
–Captured through saliva, tears, and mucus
»Pathogens destroyed - lysozyme
»Tend to be swallowed - die in acidic environment of stomach - low pH (~2)

9. Continued… Located at openings Mucus membrane barrier
Membrane traps pathogens - then expels it (depending on location)
Mouth, nose, lips, throat - usually sneezed or expectorated (cough)
Serve the purpose - pathogens prevented from entering body

11. Continued… •Cellular Innate Defense –Phagocytosis
–Toll-like receptor (TLR) (also found in insects)
•Binds to fragments usually found in pathogens
–TLR3 – inner surface vesicles
–TLR4 – lipopolysaccharide (on immune cell plasma membrane)
–TLR5 – flagellin (protein of flagella)

12. Mast Cell Mast cell - type of white blood cell in tissues
Are binded with complement cells during inflammation and trigger histamine release
attracts other phagocytes to the region
also rich in heparin - in the liver and inhibits blood coagulation
also called mastocyte and labrocyte
found in connective tissue

13. Phagocytosis - Vertebrates
•In mammals – neutrophils and macrophages
–Neutrophils – circulate blood - called by signal - attack cells being attacked by pathogen
–Macrophages – (big eater) - some circulate and some stay in certain organs

14. Phagocytic Leukocytes
White blood cells
Phagocytes
White blood cells that protect the body by ingesting harmful foreign particles, bacteria, and dead or dying cells.
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15. Macrophage
Macrophages – (big eater) - some circulate and some stay in certain organs - white blood cell
phagocytic cells
engulf other cells
commonly found in mammals
is one of the main types of phagocytes found in mammals along with neutrophils
release colony-stimulating factors
release cytokines passing through blood to bone marrow - help produce white blood cells

16. Cellular Innate Defence Continued
•Other defenses: natural killer cells and dendritic cells
–Natural killer cells – circulate through the body - detect abnormal surface proteins à release chemicals to destroy
–Dendritic cells – in tissue - phagocyte
–Eosinophils – cells found under mucosal surfaces - prevent multi-cellular invaders – worms

17. Antimicrobial Peptides and Proteins - Vertebrates
•Purpose – to attack the cells - impede reproduction
•Interferons – proteins - interfere w/ viral infections
–Infected cells - cause other cells to produce defenses to prevent infections
•Complement System – proteins - circulate in an inactive state - activated by substances on microbes
–Results in lysis – the bursting of the invading cell

18. If Defenses are Breached (Innate Immune System/non specific)
•Body must locate pathogens
–Determine good cells from bad cells
–Known as molecular recognition
•Receptor molecules will bind with any unknown cell
–Pathogens contain some unique polysaccharides in cell wall - macromolecule recognized
•Activates internal defense - binding molecule
•Defense system will fight cells
Standard: Mammals use specific immune responses triggered by natural or artificial agents that disrupt dynamic homeostasis.

19. Immune System •Adaptive/ Specific Immune System
–Only found in vertebrates
–Unlike the innate system - has variety of receptors
•Look specifically for pathogens
–Usually through a particular molecule inside pathogen
-recognizes through foreign antigens
–Also referred to as Acquired Immune Response

20. Immune System: Antibody-Mediated and Cell Mediated Immunity
A. Lymphocytes are the principal fighters in specific immune responses
B Antigen-presenting cells activate T helper cells
C. The major histocompatibility complex permits recognition of self

21. Lymphocytes Part of the Adaptive response immunity Lymphocytes
relies on T cells and B cells
types of white blood cells - called lymphocytes
Lymphocytes
located in the bone marrow (B cells) and in the blood where it matures into T cells
T cells are from the Thymus

22. Antigen
Antigens are termed foreign antigens because the body does not naturally produce them
Pathogens, cancer cells, and transplanted tissues have these antigens that the body recognizes as foreign
Self-antigens-body naturally produces them
If body reacts to its own cells, this can be either good or bad (Diabetes Mellitus vs Cancer)

23. Antigen (cont)
Immune cells interact by cell-cell contact, antigen-presenting cells (APCs), helper T-cells and killer T cells
A second exposure to an antigen results in a more rapid and enhanced immune response.
Antigens are recognized by antibodies to the antigen.
Cells are capable of recognizing antigen because they have antigen receptors that combine with antigen. B cells have B receptors (BCRs), T cells have T receptors (TCRs)

24. Visual Aid
Image From:

25. Antibody-Challenge and Response
also known as immunoglobulin (Ig)
Most typical antibody is called IgG, is a Y-shaped molecule
most major type in blood
basic unit that composes antibody structure is a Y- shaped protein molecule with two arms
each arm has a "heavy" long polypeptide chain and a "light" short polypeptide chain
class of antibody is determined by the structure of the antibody's constant region
antigen combines with an antibody at the antigen- binding site in a lock and key manner
Antibodies are proteins produced by B cells, and each antibody is specific to a particular antigen.

26. (Cont)
B cells are responsible for antibody- mediated immunity. When B Cells detect an antigen, a BCR combines with it and gives rise to plasma cells, which produce specific antibodies.
Antibodies can react to same antigen as original B cell. Antibody therefore has same specificity as the BCR. Some becomes memory B cells, which "recall" a particular antigen and make us IMMUNE to a specific illness.

27. Antibody Proteins that recognize and bind specific antigens
B cells produce a specific antibody that can combine with a specific antigen --> activates other defenses
A typical antibody consists of four polypeptide chains
Antibodies are grouped in five classes
IgM- 1st antibody on the scene
IgG- most abundant; crosses the placenta
IgA- found in milk, sweat and tears
IgD- may function to make some B cells memory cells
IgE- involved in allergic rxns; cause histamine to be released
The immune system can make 10^15 different types of antibodies
A few of each type of B cell are produced, waiting for an antigen

28. Antibiotics
If a virus is making you sick, taking antibiotics may do more harm. By taking antibiotics, you increase the chances that bacteria in your body will be able to resist them. Later, you could get or spread an infection that those antibiotics cannot cure.
Antibiotics are not effective against viruses, because antibiotics try to damage or hurt bacteria. Virus is nonliving and must attach to a host cell, and antibiotic would kill human cell along with virus.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) causes infections that are resistant to several common antibiotics. Many hospitals have special rooms where patient must be in isolation if they have MRSA.

29. Antibiotics (Cont.)
Antibacterials are divided into two broad groups according to their biological effect on microorganisms:
1) bactericidal agents kill bacteria
2) bacteriostatic agents slow down or stall bacterial growth
( rt.com/images/antibiotic s-comics.jpg)

30. Summary
The level of variation in a population affects population dynamics
Not all individuals in a population in a disease outbreak are equally affected;
e.g. some may not show symptoms,
some may have mild symptoms,
some may be naturally immune and resistant to the disease.
Plants and animals have a variety of chemical defenses against infections that affect dynamic homeostasis
Invertebrate immune systems have nonspecific response mechanisms, but they lack pathogen- specific defense responses.

31. Modern Research Related to Topic
"‘Hijacking’ cells that normally attack common infections to target cancer instead could offer the body a ready-made army against the killer disease, University researchers and Oxford-based biotech company, Immunocore Limited, have uncovered.
Published in Nature Medicine, the study examined the potential of molecules on the surface of anti-cancer killer T cells, known as T cell receptors (TCRs) to be used to treat cancers for which few disease-specific targets are available.
Recent advances have enabled molecular targeting of disease using immune molecules called antigen receptors. There are two main classes of antigen receptor: antibodies and T cell receptors.
Therapeutic application of antibodies has been a huge medical success over the last decade and over 40% of the new drugs on the market in 2011 were based on these molecules.

32. Research (cont.)
Professor Andy Sewell, School of Medicine, said: "T cell receptors have advantages over antibodies as these molecules can see inside cells and tell if they are abnormal. Similar technology based around antibodies has shown great promise in clinical trials. This new TCR-based research technology extends this potential as it could possibly be applied to any form of cancer."
-a drug called IMCgp100, is already in clinical trials for the treatment of melanoma. A second oncology ImmTAC, IMCmage1, also entered the clinic in both countries late 2012 and is applicable
Source: Cardiff University, html

33. Video
Qk&list=PL14EB6C745989FC22&index=4
-Professional Antigen Presenting Cells (APC) and MHC II complexes
-Helper T Cells
Which one would you rather watch?

34. Immunology Day 2: Immune System Responses
Kanu, Anna, Kevin

35. Review
A second exposure to an antigen results in a more rapid and enhanced immune response.
Antigens are recognized by antibodies through T Cells and B Cells
Innate response - against all pathogens --> non-specific --> use a variety of molecules

36. Chemokines & Cytokines
Cytokines regulate gene expression to allow for cell replication and division.
are any of a number of substances that are secreted by specific cells of the immune system which carry signals locally between cells, and thus have an effect on other cells.
Chemokines are a family of small cytokines, or proteins secreted by cells. Their name is derived from their ability to induce directed chemotaxis in nearby responsive cells; they are chemotactic cytokines.

37. Lymphatic System
A system of vessels and nodes, separate from the circulatory system, that returns fluid, proteins, and cells to the blood
body loses fluid --> tissue around it
called lymph - fluid lost by capillaries
can have issues --> edema - swelling from excess fluid in the tissues
causes lymph to not move as effectively

38. Lymphatic System: Lymph Nodes
Along the lymph vessels --> lymph nodes
house cells that attack pathogens
leukocytes (white blood cells)
when body fights pathogens --> leukocytes rapidly reproduce
hence swelling of the lymph nodes --> indication of the body fighting infection/disease etc.
located in groin, armpits, and neck

39. Nodes throughout the entire body
Lymphatic System
Nodes throughout the entire body
again: located in the neck, armpit, and groin

40. Responses
AP Standard: The mammalian immune system includes two types of specific responses: cell mediated and humoral.
Non Specific Response for protection other than Barriers: Inflammatory Response

41. Inflammatory Response
The changes brought about by signaling molecules released upon an injury or infection.
one of the main molecules is histamine
stored in the vesicles of mast cells
Activated complement cells in the damaged tissues and other chemicals will attract phagocytes to the area, and then the phagocytes will digest the bacteria and dead cells.
Helper T-cells (though we consider them primary involved with adaptive responses) will prolong the lives of the the immune cells as long as it detects the presence of an antigen. Once it recognizes that the threat is removed and will stop signaling, causing the activated immune cells to undergo Apoptosis.

42. Inflammatory Response (cont'd)
When injured, blood cells release histamine
diffusion causes blood vessels (capillaries) to dilate, and the area reddens
causes more blood to go to the area of injury
clots blood and increases healing
as plasma leaks into the tissues surrounding the area, the injury swells

43. Modern Research Related to Topic
Opsona Therapeutics, a biopharma company in Ireland, is attempting to impede inflammatory response during kidney transplant surgery.
They have synthesized their own molecule to block Toll-like Receptor 2 on the macrophages of the kidney so that it will not activate immune system defenses and the damaged blood cells will not release histamine.
This prevents possible problems for the recipient of the organ if the inflamed kidney's TLR-2s were to go into overdrive.
This is now in the clinical testing phase.
Article Source:
immune-system-aims-to-improve-kidney-transplants-success-rate

44. B Cells
A type of lymphocyte common to the Adaptive Immune System that has the primary function of producing antibodies. (Note: antibodies take action in the bloodstream and lymphatic system (humoral response); it cannot penetrate the cell- that job is left up to the T-cells (cell mediated response)
Immature B-cells are produced in bone marrow and then are sent to secondary lymph tissue (i.e., spleen, lymph nodes, Peyer's Patches, etc). Some of these "transitional B Cells" will mature into the B-lymphocytes we will discuss.
Any error in the development of the cell's growth (and thus growth of antibodies) will result in Apoptosis.
It secretes the antibodies when the B-cell receptor (BCR) detects antigens.

45. Humoral Response Humoral response occurs in the blood and lymph
referred to as the humors (early history)
antibodies help neutralize or eliminate toxins and pathogens in the blood and lymph
part of the Adaptive Immunity Response
refers to antibody production and the presence of body fluids
usually for cuts or breaks in the skin
In the humoral response, B cells, a type of lymphocytic white blood cell, produce antibodies against specific antigens.

46. T Cells
A type of lymphocyte common to the Adaptive Immune System that are important in Cell-Mediated Response.
They originate from the haematopoietic cells in bone marrow and mature in the thymus.
There are many types, but we will focus on two:
Helper T-cells and Cytotoxic T-cells.
Helper T-Cells:
- assist other cells, such as activating cytotoxic cells,
helping the maturation of B-cells, etc.
- also called CD4+ cells because CD4 glycoprotein is on
surface of cell
Cytotoxic T-Cells:
- target infected cells and help to destroy
- also called CD8+ cells because CD8 glycoprotein expressed

48. Adaptive Immune Responses
Visual Aid
image from:

49. Review: Memory Cells
Some cytotoxic T cells become memory T cells, ready to defend against the same virus or kill the same type of cancer cells again
example of real-life application from before: getting a shot
shots are a mild or not as strong form of exposure to harmful pathogens --> allow body to fight and create memory cells
fight again in the future
In the cell-mediated response, cytotoxic T cells, a type of lymphocytic white blood cells, "target" intracellular pathogens when antigens are displayed on the outside of the cells
discovered 2400 years ago by Thucydides (Greek historian)
important characteristic of adaptive immune response

50. Primary Immune Response
when a person is exposed to a pathogen --> antigen links with a specific epitope (part of an antigen molecule that the antibody attaches to)
causes B cells or T cells to undergo division
called effector cells --> short lived
forms of B cells --> plasma cells --> secrete antibodies
forms of T cells --> cytotoxic T cells or helper T cells --> bind to cell that a virus is attached to --> kill/neutralizes the issue
causes the cells --> specific towards the pathogen -- > remembers --> memory cell --> long lived
usually about days after --> peak of effectiveness --> cells --> effector forms

51. Secondary Immune Response
same idea as in primary immune response:
pathogen invades body (body has already been exposed to the pathogen)
memory cells and effector cells --> recognize the pathogen
decreases amount of time body needs to respond
for second exposure --> 2-7 days for body response
greater magnitude --> more effective "attack force"
prolonged attack
hallmark of adaptive, or acquired, immunity

52. Polyclonal vs. Monoclonal
Monoclonal Antibodies:
- each consists of only one antibody class
which is selective for a single epitope on the antigen
Kohler and Milstein produced these by removing
B-cells from the spleen of an animal infected by an
antigen and fusing the cells with an immortal myeloma
tumor cell line to make what is called a hybridoma
- only producing one type of antibody ensures infinite
supply: Monoclonal antibodies are highly specific
- produced in mice or rodents mostly
- specificity is a strong advantage as primary antibodies

53. Polyclonal vs. Monoclonal (cont'd)
Polyclonal Antibodies:
- these contain multiple types of antibodies, though
mostly IgGs, allowing them to recognize multiple
epitopes on an antigen
- generated by many various species like rabbits,
donkeys, sheep, and goats
- more tolerant to changes in the antigen
- targeting multiple epitopes makes them useful as
secondary antibodies

54. Clonal Reception/Selection
During the primary immune response --> effector cells are created
proliferation of lymphocytes into clone of cells --> response to binding to an antigen
called clonal reception/selection
Definition: the process through which lymphocyte cell clones bind to a certain antigen --> the antigen selects the lymphocyte that it will bind to --> will divide into the clones of the epitope - part of the antigen

55. CD4 and CD8 receptors CD4 cells send the signal
CD8 cells destroy and kill the infection or virus.
CD8 (cluster of differentiation 8) is a transmembrane glycoprotein that serves as a co-receptor for the T cell receptor (TCR).
Like the TCR, CD8 binds to a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule, but is specific for the class I MHC protein.
The most common form of CD8 is composed of a CD8-α and CD8-β chain, both members of the immunoglobulin superfamily with an immunoglobulin variable (IgV)-like extracellular domain connected to the membrane by a thin stalk, and an intracellular tail.

56. Active and Passive Immunity
Babies are born with what's called passive immunity that they receive from their mothers—but unfortunately this protection doesn't last as long as moms might expect.
Vaccines, on the other hand, provide active immunity, which mimics what is acquired from natural infection or disease. Active immunity gives infants protection against potentially life-threatening disease.
IgG antibodies can cross the placenta from a mother to a fetus, so the fetus has a temporary immunity
Vaccines.com

57. Blood types
Group A – has only the A antigen on red cells (and B antibody in the plasma)
Group B – has only the B antigen on red cells (and A antibody in the plasma)
Group AB – has both A and B antigens on red cells (but neither A nor B antibody in the plasma)
Group O – has neither A nor B antigens on red cells (but both A and B antibody are in the plasma)
RH factor-The Rh factor is a type of protein on the surface of red blood cells.
Rh blood group system consists of 50 defined blood- group antigens (among which the five antigens D, C, c, E, and e )

58. Blood Clotting
Platelets are small fragments that circulate along with erythrocytes (red blood cells) and leukocytes (white blood cells) in blood plasma.
Clotting process begins with the release of incomplete fragments of cells from the damaged tissue, resulting in the formation of thrombin.
Thrombin converts fibrinogen (always in the bloodstream) into the fibrous protein fibrin.
Fibrin captures red blood cells and immobilizes the fluid portion of the blood so as to provide the impetus for clotting.
Blood becomes slightly solidified (similar to a gelatin-like substance) until...
Platelets reach this fibrous mass and send out sticky extensions to each other.
The platelets then contract, forcing out the liquid and scabbing over the wound

59. Changes in signal transduction pathways can alter cellular response
drugs (hypertensives, anesthetics, antihistamines, and birth control)
diabetes, heart disease, neurological disease
Antihistamine
medicine used to treat allergic reactions
when body experiences allergies --> releases histamines - an amine that is released and causes the blood vessels to expand --> allow leukocytes to flow to region and attack pathogen --> enlarging blood vessel --> inflammation
antihistamines block histamine --> decreases inflammation

60. Continued...
Immunosuppressants (also referred to as anti-rejection drugs)
mainly used to prevent the body from rejecting a transplanted organ (classified into 4 categories: cyclosporins, monoclonal antibodies, azathioprines, and corticosteroids)
prevents the body from attacking the new organ grafted into body
new organ is seen as a "foreign material"
causes the immune system to reject it --> send white blood cells to attack --> destruction of organ and body still missing the organ
also used to prevent severe skin reactions
rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease (chronic inflammation of the digestive tract), and patchy hair loss (alopecia areata)

61. MHC proteins
Variations within molecular classes provide cells and organisms with a wider range of functions.
Molecular diversity of antibodies in response to an antigen
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a cell surface molecule encoded by a large gene family in all vertebrates.
MHC molecules mediate interactions of leukocytes with other leukocytes or body cells.
MHC determines compatibility of donors for organ transplant

62. Autoimmune Disorders
Biological systems are affected by disruptions to their dynamic homeostasis. e.g. immunological responses to pathogens, toxins and allergens.... but the body can also attack itself.

63. Hypersensitivity
Undesirable reactions produced by the normal immune system
Type I hypersensitivity is also known as immediate or anaphylactic hypersensitivity.
Type II hypersensitivity is also known as cytotoxic hypersensitivity (Rhesus Incompatibility)
Type III hypersensitivity is also known as immune complex hypersensitivity.
Type IV hypersensitivity is also known as cell mediated hypersensitivity.
tuberculin reaction which peaks 48 hours after the injection of antigen

64. CANCER A coronal CT scan showing a malignant mesothelioma → tumor ←,
✱ central pleural effusion,
1 & 3 lungs,
2 spine,
4 ribs,
5 aorta,
6 spleen,
7 & 8 kidneys,
9 liver.

65. Cancer Cancer is a failure in immunosurveillance
benign tumor- the tumor is not spreading (therefore, it's not too harmful as long as it's removed)
Benign tumors are typically surrounded by an outer surface (fibrous sheath of connective tissue) or remain with the epithelium.Common examples of benign tumors include moles (nevi) and uterine fibroids (leiomyomas).
Malignant- this means that the cancer is spreading to other parts of the body -potentially the most dangerous part of the process
It is spread by the lymphatic system
It is a failure of immunosurveillance

66. Causes
Timing and coordination of specific events are necessary for the normal development of an organism, and these events are regulated by a variety of mechanisms
Cyclin
proteins that control the progression of cells through the cell cycle by activating cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) enzymes
Programmed cell death (apoptosis) plays a role in the normal development and differentiation e.g. Immune function

67. Monoclonal Antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies such as trastuzumab, which binds to the HER2 receptor in breast cancer cells, have now been shown to improve survival of patients with HER2- positive, early-stage disease.
Additional antibodies targeting other members of the epidermal growth factor receptor family have been approved for use in metastatic disease and studied in clinical trials
(American College of Physicians)

68. Cytokines and Cancer Therapy
Cytokine- a soluble protein that acts as a signaling molecule and stimulates white blood cells
Cytokines called interleukins are produced by white blood cells, and they act to stimulate other white blood cells
Cancer cells carry an altered protein on their cell surface that SHOULD HAVE been killed by cytotoxic T cells
Cytokines such as interleukins might awaken the immune system
Researchers bioengineer APC cells withdrawn from the patient and activate the cells by culturing them in the presence of an interleukin

69. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
Two types HIV-1 and HIV-2 (note: in the US people tend to use the general term of HIV for HIV-1 because it is more vastly concentrated; HIV-2 cases center in Africa)
Both types of HIV damage the adaptive immune system by destroying the CD4+ helper T cells, which are needed to activate B-cell and cytotoxin T-cell responses.
Thus HIV will impede the body's ability to perform both humoral and cell-mediated responses.
Because the virus kills the helper T-cells, the body cannot properly form antibodies and infected cells cannot be fully eliminated. This enables the virus to spread and kill off more and more T-cells.
Eventually the depletion of T-cells will render the immune system incapable of fighting off even weak bacteria and viruses, Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

70. HIV's Effect on the Cell
Image from:

71. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
AIDS is considered the final stage of HIV and is caused by the depletion of T-cells over time. (200 or lower T-cells)
HIV, the cause of AIDS, can be transmitted primarily in the following ways:
- Unprotected sex with someone who has HIV
- Having multiple sex partners or being exposed to an STD
-transmitted through semen, blood, or other bodily fluids
- Unsterilized equipment used to prepare illicit drugs for
injection
- A mother with HIV can pass it to her child at any stage of
pregnancy, birth, and breast feeding
A few less common ways would be:
- Eating food pre-chewed by an HIV-infected person (mostly
infants)
- Being bitten by someone with HIV

72. AIDS (cont'd)
Immunosuppression is caused by HIV destruction of helper T cells
- higher risk of getting cancer
- greater susceptibility to disease, often leads to death
Symptoms:
- swollen lymph nodes, weight loss, night sweats, fatigue,
fever, blurred vision, chronic diarrhea, AIDS Dimentia has also been seen
Treatment:
1. AZT is a drug that is used to treat AIDS, and acts by
blocking reverse transcriptase, necessary for viral
replication
2. Protease inhibitors are a more promising, recently
developed treatment

73. Social implications Grief of friends, immediate and extended family.
A burden to families if the person with AIDS does not have medical insurance
There is unfortunately some prejudice against those with AIDS
Not enough education about prevention and testing for AIDS in third-world countries
According to the WHO, over 25 million have died as of 2010
Movements for AIDS awareness

74. Modern Research Related to Topic
Danish scientists have recently developed and are testing a technique for eradicating the HIV virus.
This method includes the use of HDAC Inhibitors to stimulate the HIV from a cell's DNA to to surface of the cell where the immune system may be able to kill the virus.
The main issue is the immune system's ability to recognize the threat once it is activated and brought to the surface.
Article Source: /Scientists-hope-for-HIV-cure.html

75. Vaccines
Principles
Vaccination involves distributing antigenic material to stimulate the immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen. They help individuals develop immunity to a particular infection.
They have suspensions of killed or attenuated microorganisms, or products or derivatives of microorganisms. (World Health Organization)

76. Benefits decreased health care cost
less chance of pandemic or epidemic
total and partial prevention of disease
are made of only tiny fragments of viruses or bacteria compared with the incredible amount of germs we come in contact with every day
prevent cancer

78. Dangers
Parents have to consider any side effects of the vaccination and evaluate the implications this may have on their child.
According to the CDC, there are some common side effects within 2 weeks of getting the vaccine:
headaches, upper respiratory tract infection (about 1 person in 3)
stuffy nose, sore throat, joint pain (about 1 person in 6)
abdominal pain, cough, nausea (about 1 person in 7)
diarrhea (about 1 person in 10)
fever (about 1 person in 100)

79. Potential Severe Dangers
Thimerosal is a mercury-containing preservative used in some vaccines and other products since the 1930's.
low doses of thimerosal in vaccines
can cause minor reactions like redness and swelling at the injection site.
A Canadian study reconfirms older findings ruling out an association between pervasive developmental disorder [PDD] (including autism) and high levels of ethylmercury exposures or MMR vaccines.
The specific findings by Fombonne et al in Pediatrics include:
Autism and Thimerosal - thimerosal exposure was unrelated to the increasing trend in PDD prevalence.
Autism and MMR - no association between MMR vaccinations (both 1 and 2 doses) and autism or PDD rates.

80. Vaccines...Overload of the Immune System?
CDC recommends vaccinations to protect children against 16 infectious diseases
measles, mumps, rubella (German measles), varicella (chickenpox), hepatitis B, diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), Haemophilus influenza type B (Hib), polio, influenza (flu), and pneumococcal disease
Scientific studies show that simultaneous vaccination with multiple vaccines has no adverse effect on the normal childhood immune system.

81. Relationship between Scientific Community and General Public Concerning Vaccines
-double blind experiments are done to test effectiveness of vaccines
-Bugabwe (Uganda), 27 April Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni today formally launched the introduction of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) into the country’s routine immunization schedule to avert infant and child deaths due to pneumococcal disease.
Source: centre/pressreleases/item/5493-uganda-introduces- pneumococcal-vaccine-to-curb-infant-and-child- deaths.html