1. 8.1 Solutions Solution = homogeneous mixture
Solute= substance in the lesser amount
Mixture = 2 or more components
Solvent= substance in the greater amount

3. hydrogen bonding N, O, F of one -------------- H of another
Water is a very common solvent. Latin for water is aqua, therefore called aqueous solutions, and symbolized by (aq).
Table salt dissolved in water
NaCl (aq)
Table salt
NaCl (s)
Water will dissolve any substance that is “like” water, in other words, polar.
We will look at ionic compounds as “extreme” polar.
hydrogen bonding N, O, F of one H of another
Polar solvents dissolve polar solutes Nonpolar solvents dissolve nonpolar solutes
 Like dissolves like

4. NaCl Ionic “extreme polar” Yes dissolves in water
No in nonpolar solvents
Sugar Molecular Polar
Oil Molecular Nonpolar
No does not dissolve in water
Yes dissolves in nonpolar solvents
Figure 08-T03
Title:
Possible Combinations of Solutes and Solvents
Caption:

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6. Chemical equations ionic solutes
Figure 08-02
Title:
NaCl Dissolved in Water
Caption:
Ions on the surface of a crystal of NaCl dissolve in water as they are attracted to the polar water molecules that pull the ions into solution and surround them.

7. Chemical equations molecular solutes
Figure UN
Title:
Sucrose Dissolved in Water
Caption:
A nonelectrolyte such as sucrose (sugar) dissolves in water as molecules, which do not dissociate into ions. When electrodes are placed in a solution of a nonelectrolyte, the light bulb does not glow, because the solution does not conduct electricity.

8. some particles break-up as they dissolve, others do not.
Electrolytes
some particles break-up as they dissolve, others do not.
No break-up
total break-up
partial break-up
Strong
electrolyte
weak
electrolyte
nonelectrolyte
A substance that produces ions in solution can conduct electricity.
electrolytes conduct electricity.

9. Strong electrolytes dissolve with complete ionization
Weak electrolytes dissolve with partial ionization
Figure UN
Title:
Strong, Weak, and Nonelectrolytes
Caption:
A nonelectrolyte such as sucrose (sugar) dissolves in water as molecules, which do not dissociate into ions. When electrodes are placed in a solution of a nonelectrolyte, the light bulb does not glow, because the solution does not conduct electricity.
Nonelectrolytes dissolve with no ionization

11. Solution = mixing of particles (homogeneous) mixing = ability to interact ability to interact = chemical nature of particles
Slightly
soluble
insoluble
Very soluble
soluble
Figure UN
Title:
Methanol Dissolved in Water
Caption:
In another example, we find that a polar covalent compound such as methanol, CH3OH, dissolves in water because methanol has a polar —OH group that forms hydrogen bonds with water.
When an insoluble substance forms during a reaction , we call it a precipitate

12. Barium sulfate enhanced X-ray of the abdomen shows the large intestine
Kidney stone
Figure 08-06
Title:
Barium Sulfate Enhanced X-ray
Caption:
A barium sulfate enhanced X-ray of the abdomen shows the large intestine.
Kidney stones result when urine becomes too concentrated and substances in the urine crystalize to form stones. Symptoms arise when the stones begin to move down the ureter causing intense pain. Kidney stones may form in the pelvis or calyces of the kidney or in the ureter.
There are several types of kidney stones based on the type of crystals of which they consist. The majority are calcium oxalate stones, followed by calcium phosphate stones.

13. Solubility = maximum value
To quantify the degree of mixing, we use solubility
Solubility = the amount of solute that can be dissolved in 100 mL of H2O
Solubility = maximum value
Any amount pass this limit does not dissolve.
Figure UN
Title:
Saturated Sodium Chloride Solution
Caption:
We can prepare a saturated solution by adding solute greater than needed for solubility. Stirring the solution will dissolve the maximum amount of solute and leave the excess on the bottom of the container. Once we have a saturated solution, the addition of more solute will increase only the amount of undissolved solute.
Solubility is T dependent.
At 20 ˚C
NaNO3 84g
KNO3 45g

14. Net ionic equations
Chapter 8, Unnumbered Table, Page 311

15. mass/mass % mass/volume % Concentration = ratio  amount of solute
amount of solvent
% = g solute x g solution
mass/mass %
% = g solute x 100 ml solution
mass/volume %

16. M = moles L soln. M = grams MM L soln. Molarity and Dilution
moles = grams MM
M = grams MM L soln.
igure UN
Title:
A 1.0 Molar NaCl Solution
Caption:
What is the molarity of a solution that contains 75.0 g of KNO3 dissolved in L of solution?

17. Dilute  add solvent  lower concentration
let 1= conc. 2 = dilute
Figure UN
Title:
Dilution Illustrated
Caption:
In chemistry and biology, we often prepare dilute solutions from more concentrated (stock) solutions. In a process called dilution, a solvent, usually water, is added to a solution, which increases the volume. In an everyday example, you are making a dilution when you add three cans of water to a can of concentrated orange juice.
n1 = n2
M = n L
n = M x L = C V
C1V1 = C2V2 C = % or M

18. The body is mostly water. Water is the solvent for all living matter.
In osmosis, water flows through a semipermeable membrane from the lower concentration into the higher concentration.
high
low
Water is the only molecule that moves freely between cells and the extracellular fluid. This provides the extracellular and intracellular compartments with a state of osmotic equilibrium in which the total amount of solute per volume of fluid is equal on both sides of the cell membrane.
The level of the solution with the higher concentration rises.
The concentrations of the two solutions become equal with time.
Do not confuse with diffusion, where solute particles such as Cl- move from high to low concentration.

19. The liquid level in the tube rises until equilibrium is reached (concentrations are the same)
The pressure needed to prevent osmosis is called Osmotic pressure .

20. An isotonic solution
Is known as a “physiological solution”.
Exerts the same osmotic pressure as red blood cells.
5.0% glucose or 0.90% NaCl is used medically because each has a solute concentration equal to the osmotic pressure equal to red blood cells.
A hypotonic solution
Has a lower osmotic pressure than red blood cells.
Has a lower concentration than physiological solutions.
Causes water to flow into red blood cells.
Causes hemolysis: RBCs swell and may burst.
A hypertonic solution
Has a higher osmotic pressure than RBCs.
Has a higher concentration than physiological solutions.
Causes water to flow out of RBCs.
Causes crenation: RBCs shrinks in size.