1. THE OTHER IN LATIN AMERICA: RACE, GENDER, AND FAITH Osvaldo Jordan-Ramos September 17, 2009

2. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE During the XVI, XVII and XVIII centuries, the Spanish and Portuguese colonial regimes created societies that were predominantly European, Catholic and Patriarchal. The voices of Others were systematically censored, distorted and even silenced utilizing violent means. In spite of indoctrination, manipulation, and outright repression, other identities and religions survived the pass of the colony.

3. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Independently of their conservative or liberal leanings, the new Latin American republics were modeled from a European and male-centered criollo vision of modern society (only the Catholic dominance was challenged by Liberalism). The voices of others did not emerge until bottom- up revolutionary movements began threatening the status quo, such as the Mexican Revolution and APRA movement in Peru.

4. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Although indigenismo exalted the indigenous and African roots of Latin American society, modern critics considered that non-European cultures were presented as exotic and ancient (=museum displays). In general terms, integration and acculturation dominated education, health care, and political representation in Latin America during the XX century. As expressed by Mexican Jose Vasconcelos, the cosmic race would become the ideal of a Latin American modern identity (mestizaje).

5. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE The dominance of Catholicism, mestizaje, and patriarchalism was not effectively challenged until the mid-1900s with the rise of capitalist industrialization and urbanization. As opposed to the rural towns where Iberian traditions could be maintained away from the rest of the world, the millions of peasants moving into the cities were challenged by new customs, values, and different ways of life.

6. RELIGION Although the Catholic Church struggled to create a more proximate version of Christianity after the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), the repression of the military, the persistence of traditionalism and intellectualism, secularization, and the rise of Pentecostalism have all challenged Catholic hegemony in The Americas. After the 1990s, there has also been an increasing tolerance and adherence to non-European faiths and perspectives.

7. GENDER Urbanization made female labor not only a possibility, but a practical necessity. The empowerment of working women, however, also brought about changes in gender relations. Divorce rates and single motherhood increased dramatically, yet women also became increasingly prominent in public positions. Although sexual discrimination continues, Latin American women have shed traditional gender roles and demonstrated that they have the capacity to make significant contributions to society beyond household work and child care.

8. RACE AND ETHNICITY Independent of the ideological rift during the Cold War, a wave of indigenous movements rose in the 1970s and spoiled the celebration of the Fifth Centennial of the European Conquest in 1992. Indigenous peoples eventually developed an alliance with environmentalists (and years later with anti-globalization activists).

9. THE POLITICIZATION OF RACE AND ETHNICITY Many indigenous movements have become politically explicit, and have staged massive demonstrations, toppled governments, and challenged the political agendas of the Right and the Left. -Indigenous uprisings in Ecuador in 1990, 1994, and 2000. -The Zapatista Rebellion in 1994. -The elections of Alejandro Toledo (2000) and Evo Morales (2005).

10. THE POLITICIZATION OF RACE AND ETHNICITY The political agenda of indigenous peoples has challenged traditional Iberian values, Washington Consensus (Neoliberalism), and Marxist Orthodoxy: -Political Autonomy. -Collective Land Rights. - Bilingualism. -Western Science and Spirituality.

11. THE POLITICIZATION OF RACE AND ETHNICITY During the 1990s and 2000s, most countries in Latin America have responded with constitutional reforms that formally recognize the rights of indigenous peoples. This window of opportunity has also been capitalized by Afro-Descendants to advance claims for non-discrimination, equal opportunities, social recognition, and even territorial autonomy.