1. Species and Their Formation
What Are Species?
How Do New Species Arise?
Completing Speciation: Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
Hybrid Zones: Incomplete Reproductive Isolation
Variation in Speciation Rates
Evolutionary Radiations

2. How Do New Species Arise?
Speciation is the process by which one species splits into two species.
Not all evolutionary changes result in new species.
The critical process in the formation of new species is the segregation of the gene pool of the ancestral species into two separate gene pools.
Speciation is facilitated by interruption of gene flow among populations.

3. How Do New Species Arise?
Speciation that results when a population is divided by a geographic barrier is known as allopatric speciation or geographic speciation.
Allopatric speciation is thought to be the dominant form of speciation among most groups of organisms.

4. Figure 24.4 Allopatric Speciation

5. How Do New Species Arise?
Allopatric speciation also may result when some members of a population cross a barrier and form a new, isolated population.
Populations established in this way differ genetically from the parent populations because of the founder effect.
A small group of founding individuals has an incomplete representation of the gene pool of the parent population.

6. How Do New Species Arise?
A barrier’s effectiveness at preventing gene flow depends on the size and mobility of the species in question.
For example, an impenetrable barrier for a terrestrial snail may be not be a barrier for a butterfly.

7. How Do New Species Arise?
A partition of a gene pool that occurs without physical separation is called sympatric speciation.
The most common means of sympatric speciation is polyploidy.
Polyploidy arises in two ways:
Autopolyploidy is chromosome duplication in a single species.
Allopolyploidy is the combining of chromosomes from two different species.

8. How Do New Species Arise?
Autopolyploidy can result from the accidental production of cells that have four sets (tetraploid) instead of the usual two sets (diploid) of chromosomes.
If tetraploid and diploid individuals mate, the triploid offspring are usually sterile because the chromosomes do not synapse correctly.
Tetraploid plants are thus reproductively isolated very quickly.

9. Figure 24.7 Tetraploids Are Soon Reproductively Isolated from Diploids

10. How Do New Species Arise?
Allopolyploidy can arise when individuals of closely related species interbreed or hybridize.
Allopolyploids are usually fertile because each of the chromosomes has a nearly identical partner to pair with during meiosis.

11. Completing Speciation: Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
Once a barrier to gene flow is established, the resulting daughter populations may diverge genetically.
Geographic isolation does not necessarily lead to reproductive incompatibility, however, as evidenced by European and American sycamores.
Reproductive isolating mechanisms (formation of traits that prevent interbreeding between populations) result from a number of conditions.

12. Completing Speciation: Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
Prezygotic reproductive barriers operate before fertilization:
Spatial isolation
Temporal isolation
Mechanical isolation
Gametic isolation
Behavioral isolation

13. Completing Speciation: Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
The mate choice of one species can be mediated by the behavior of individuals of other species. For example, whether two plant species hybridize may depend on the preferences of their pollinators.
The evolution of floral traits that generate reproductive isolation has been studied in the columbines of the genus Aquilegia.
Genetically based differences in flower color result in each species attracting a different pollinator.

14. Figure 24.11 Hawkmoths Favor Flowers of One Columbine Species (Part 2)

15. Completing Speciation: Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
Postzygotic reproductive barriers operate after fertilization:
Hybrid zygote abnormality
Hybrid infertility
Low hybrid viability
If hybrid offspring survive poorly, more effective prezygotic barriers may evolve, a process known as reinforcement.

16. Hybrid Zones: Incomplete Reproductive Isolation
Contact between formerly isolated populations before reproductive isolation is complete may result in interbreeding.
There are three possible outcomes to such interbreeding:
If hybrid offspring are successful, hybrids may spread through both populations, combining the two gene pools so that no new species result.
If hybrid offspring are less successful, complete reproductive isolation may evolve as reinforcement strengthens prezygotic barriers.
A narrow hybrid zone may persist if reinforcement does not happen.

17. Hybrid Zones: Incomplete Reproductive Isolation
Hybrid zones provide natural laboratories for the study of speciation, containing recombinant individuals resulting from many generations of hybridization.
European toads of the genus Bombina have been the subject of such studies.
Although the hybrids are not as fit as purebred individuals, the narrow hybrid zone has persisted because there has been no opportunity for reinforcement to occur.

18. Hybrid Zones: Incomplete Reproductive Isolation
Molecular biology techniques allow scientists to measure genetic differences among species.
Studies of Hawaiian fruit flies are demonstrating that many sympatric species may be genetically very similar.
Fewer than ten, and often fewer than five, genes are responsible for reproductive isolation.

19. Variation in Speciation Rates
A number of factors influence speciation rates.
Species richness: The larger the number of species there are in a lineage, the larger the number of opportunities there are for new species to form.
Dispersal rates: Individuals of species with poor dispersal abilities are unlikely to establish new populations by dispersing across barriers.
Ecological specialization: species restricted to habitat types that are patchy in distribution are more likely to diverge than those in continuous habitats.

20. Variation in Speciation Rates
Population bottlenecks: Changes to the gene pool that occur when a population passes through a bottleneck may result in new adaptations.
Type of pollination: Animal-pollinated species tend to have increased speciation rates.
Sexual selection: Animals with complex behavior discriminate among potential mating partners. This can influence which individuals are most successful in producing offspring, and may lead to rapid reinforcement of reproductive isolation between species.

21. Variation in Speciation Rates
Environmental changes: Oscillations of climates may fragment populations of species that live in formerly continuous habitats.
Climate change was responsible for driving a burst of speciation among African antelopes between 2.5 and 2.9 mya.

22. Evolutionary Radiations
The fossil record reveals certain periods of high speciation rates in Earth’s history (evolutionary radiations).
Evolutionary radiations are likely when an organism colonizes an environment that has relatively few species, such as an island.
Islands lack many plant and animal groups found on the mainland, so ecological opportunities exist that may stimulate rapid evolutionary changes when a new species does reach them.
Water barriers also restrict gene flow among islands.

23. Evolutionary Radiations
The Hawaiian Islands are an example of the rapid evolution possible in an environment with few species.
The Hawaiian Islands are the most isolated islands in the world.
More than 90 percent of plant species are endemic, found nowhere else in the world.
Some plant groups, such as the silverswords, are much more diverse than their mainland counterparts.
The diversity of this group reflects the absence of tree and shrub species on the islands when the first colonizers arrived.