1. Deductive and Inductive Writing

2. Two Traditional Means of Approaching the Thesis 1. deductive reasoning ◦the thesis appears toward the beginning of the text, then specific details follow in the body of the essay that support this point 2. inductive reasoning ◦the reader/writer first develops the importance of the point s/he wishes to make, THEN synthesize multiple points to infer a GENERAL thesis

3. Deduction Vs. Induction Deduction: commonly associated with “formal logic.” involves reasoning from known premises, or premises presumed to be true, to a certain conclusion. the conclusions reached are certain, inevitable, inescapable. Induction commonly known as “informal logic,” or “everyday argument” involves drawing uncertain inferences, based on probable reasoning. the conclusions reached are probable, reasonable, plausible, believable.

4. Deduction Versus Induction ---continued Deductive reasoning is either “valid” or “invalid.” A deductive argument can’t be “sort of” valid. If the reasoning employed in an argument is valid and the argument’s premises are true, then the argument is said to be sound. valid reasoning + true premises = sound argument Inductive reasoning enjoys a wide range of probability; it can be plausible, possible, reasonable, credible, etc. the inferences drawn may be placed on a continuum ranging from cogent at one end to fallacious at the other. fallaciouscogent

5. Sample Deductive and Inductive Arguments Example of Deduction major premise: All tortoises are vegetarians minor premise: Bessie is a tortoise conclusion: Therefore, Bessie is a vegetarian Example of Induction Boss to employee: “Biff has a tattoo of an anchor on his arm. He probably served in the Navy.”

6. Bessie tortoisesvegetarian animals sample “Venn diagram” of a deductive argument All tortoises fall in the circle of animals that are vegetarians Bessie falls into the circle of animals that are tortoises Thus, Bessie must be a vegetarian

8. Deduction Versus Induction --still more Deductive reasoning is commonly found in the natural sciences or “hard” sciences, less so in everyday arguments Occasionally, everyday arguments do involve deductive reasoning: Example: “Two or more persons are required to drive in the diamond lane. You don’t have two or more persons. Therefore you may not drive in the diamond lane” Inductive reasoning is found in the courtroom, the boardroom, the classroom, and throughout the media Most, but not all everyday arguments are based on induction ◦Examples: The “reasonable person” standard in civil law, and the “beyond a reasonable doubt” standard in criminal law

9. Deduction—Induction and high school assessments The majority of the essays you write in high school are developed using deductive reasoning. Classes that require this style of reasoning in their essays are: AP World History APUSH 11 th and 12 th grade history courses Some aspect of science courses OTHER FACTS: AP Lang and AP Lit require much more variety in essay approach. Much of the nonfiction reading you do in your LitComp classes will be inductively written.

10. Two Traditional Means of Approaching the Thesis 1. deductive reasoning ◦the thesis appears toward the beginning of the text, then specific details follow in the body of the essay that support this point 2. inductive reasoning ◦the reader/writer first develops the importance of the point s/he wishes to make, THEN synthesize multiple points to infer a GENERAL thesis

11. The Discursively Structured Argumentative Essay

12. Why Students Should Have to Learn How to Write Discursively Argumentative Essays

14. According to Tina Blue, professor of English at the University of Kansas, “despite the widely held belief that human beings are rational animals, the fact is that we are no such thing--at least not naturally. What we are is capable of rational thought. We have the capacity to learn how to reason, but that capacity does not come to fruition without careful nurturing.”

15. What is “discourse”? The exercise of rational thought or procedure to analyze a subject and to express in an orderly way the judgments arrived at through such analysis is called "discourse." Discursive writing aims to arrive at an understanding of a subject--or to make such an understanding possible for the reader by leading him through the steps of rational analysis of that subject.

16. The Action of Discourse The etymology of the word "discourse" is particularly interesting in this context. It comes to us from Latin, through French, and the word it derives from means to run back and forth. The purpose of discursive reasoning and writing is to "run back and forth" over a subject until it is completely understood--i.e., to thoroughly cover the ground. It is an act of learning or of teaching, not an act of personal self-expression, and certainly not an act of self- indulgence.

17. Why Students Should Have to Learn How to Write Discursively Argumentative Essays From writing discursively argumentative essays students will: ◦garner a deeper understanding of a given topic and to the long-term retention of the knowledge thus gained. ◦mind trained to engage in careful, systematic analysis and to form opinions or draw conclusions from such reasoning, rather than from ignorance or whim. In short: writing discursive essays will make a person smarter.

18. What is discursive and argumentative writing? Argumentative Writing ◦An argumentative piece usually presents a slightly more forceful set of reasons for adopting one point of view over another. It is highly logical and structured. Discursive Writing ◦A discursive piece takes a broad and thoughtful view and considers both or all sides of the topic. It is highly logical and structured.

19. The goal of a discursively argued essay The goal of a discursively argued essay is to present a balanced and objective examination of a subject. Like a purely argumentative essay, the topic may be controversial, but the discursive essay attempts to present a much more balanced discussion of the issue. It does not, however, have to be expressly neutral. The essay should evenly present both sides of the discussion, supported by facts and research. The author may draw tentative conclusions about the subject and suggest them to the reader.

20. What do I write? Write an essay that: ◦is focused; ◦is logical; ◦is clear; ◦is well-structured; ◦makes a point; ◦grabs the reader’s interest from the first lines; ◦does not pad; ◦provides illustrative evidence; ◦gives credits to sources.

21. WAYS TO ORGANIZE A DISCURSIVELY ARGUMENTATIVE PAPER There are various good and effective ways to organize or structure a discursively argumentative paper, but there are two general principles you should follow. One is that whatever your overall organizational scheme is, it should be pretty obvious to a reader. To make it obvious it is helpful to use transition phrases such as "Second...," "Finally...," "In response to the first objection...," and the like. The second general principle is that you should clearly state your overall thesis early in the paper, before you start providing your support for it. Argumentative papers should not be like mystery novels with surprise endings! Here are a couple example general organizational approaches (there are others); each part (thesis, context, etc.) is often a paragraph, or sometimes more in a longer paper.

22. WAYS TO ORGANIZE A DISCURSIVELY ARGUMENTATIVE PAPER Paragraph 1 – Framed Introduction Your first paragraph should: ◦be a general introduction. Don’t include specific points from the main body of the argument ◦be interesting and relevant Paragraph 2 – Background ◦Provide some of the history of the topic you are writing about.

23. WAYS TO ORGANIZE A DISCURSIVELY ARGUMENTATIVE PAPER Body Paragraphs 3-7ish – Your argument (at least 6/7 reasons, thus 6/7 paragraphs) These paragraphs must: ◦contain one major point of the argument, stating your reason for agreeing/disagreeing with question posed. ◦begin with or have near its start a topic sentence (a sentence which indicates what the paragraph will be about and how it relates to the essay title). ◦be linked to the paragraph that comes before, often with a suitable conjunction or link words such as in addition, nevertheless, despite this, however. Don’t put also or for example at the start of a sentence. ◦contain evidence of your research (e.g. statistics/expert opinion).

24. The directions say that you need about 3-7ish body paragraphs. To simplify the task for the first draft it would be logical to structure the body paragraphs in one of the two following manners: Option 1: Option 2: 1. 1 st argument for (or against) 2. Counter argument for 1 st argument 3. 2 nd argument for (or against) 4. Counter argument for 2 nd argument 5. 3 rd argument for (or against) 6. Counter argument for 3rd argument 1. 1 st argument for (or against) 2. 2 nd argument for (or against) 3. 3 rd argument for (or against) 4. Counter argument 1 5. Counter argument 2 6. Counter argument 3 Thus, you have 6 body paragraphs discursively covering the subject in a balanced argument.

25. Initially, writing this essay will make you feel like...

26. However, once you have had the formality and syntax mini-lessons down the way, you will feel more like…