2. Personality Psychodynamic Theories Humanistic Theories Trait Theories
Social-Cognitive Theories
Exploring the Self

3. Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s psycho analytic perspective: Exploring the unconscious
The Neo-Freudian and later psychodynamic theorists
Assessing unconscious processes
Evaluating Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective and modern views of the unconscious
Personality: Individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

4. Psychodynamic Theories
Exploring the Unconscious
View of personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences
11-1 How did Sigmund Freud’s treatment psychological disorders lead to his view of the unconscious mind?
SIGMUND FREUD (1856–1939) “I was the only worker in a new field.”

5. Psychoanalysis Unconscious Free association
Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions
Unconscious
According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories
According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware
Free association
In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, matter how unimportant or embarrassing

6. Personality Structure
Freud
Personality arises from conflict between impulse and restraint.
With socialization, urges are internalize through social restraints which aid in the resolution of basic conflict.
People seek to express impulses in ways that bring satisfaction without guilt or punishment.
11-2 What was Freud’s view of personality?

7. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective: Exploring the Unconscious
Specialized in nervous disorders after medical school
Theorized that mind contained large unconscious region where feelings and ideas were repressed
Used free association to help patients find and release forbidden thoughts
11-1 How did Sigmund Freud’s treatment of psychological disorders lead to his view of the unconscious mind?

8. Personality StructureId
Unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives; operates gratification
Ego
Largely conscious, “executive” part that balances the demands of the id, superego, and reality; operates on reality principle
Superego
Represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future goals
Icebergs hide most of their bulk beneath the surface of the water. Psychologists often use this image to show Freud’s idea that the mind is mostly hidden beneath the surface of our awareness. Unlike the parts of a frozen iceberg, however, the id, ego, and superego interact. Id
Reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates gratification.
Ego
Largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, balances the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.
Superego
Part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future goals.
FREUD’S IDEA OF THE MIND’S STRUCTURE

9. Personality Development
Freud’s psychosexual stages
Children pass through stages wherein id’s pleasure- seeking energies focus on an erogenous zone.
Key concepts
Oedipus complex
Electra complex
Identification
Fixation
11-3 What developmental stages did Freud propose?

10. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

11. Oedipus complex Electra complex Identification Fixation
Boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father
Electra complex
Female version of Oedipus complex
Identification
Children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos
Fixation
Lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

12. Nagel Photography/Shutterstock
Defense Mechanisms
Ego distorts reality in effort to manage anxiety through defense mechanisms
All defense mechanisms operate indirectly and unconsciously
Repression underlies all other defense mechanisms
VStock / Alamy
Defense mechanisms disguise threatening impulses and prevent them for reaching consciousness
11-4 How did Freud think people defended themselves against anxiety?
REGRESSION Faced with a stressor, children and young orangutans may regress, retreating to the comfort of earlier behaviors.

13. Six Defense Mechanisms

14. According to Freud’s ideas about the three-part personality structure, the ________ operates on the reality principle and tries to balance demands in a way that produces long-term pleasure rather than pain; the ________ operates on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification; and the ________ represents the voice of our internalized ideals (our conscience).
ANSWERS: ego; id; superego

15. In the psychoanalytic view, conflicts unresolved during one of the psychosexual stages may lead to ________ at that stage. Freud believed that our defense mechanisms operate ________ (consciously/unconsciously) and defend us against.
ANSWER: fixation
ANSWERS: unconsciously; anxiety

16. The Neo-Freudian and Later Psychodynamic Theorists
ALFRED ADLER (1870–1937)
KAREN HORNEY (1885–1952)
CARL JUNG (1875–1961)
The Neo-Freudian and Later Psychodynamic Theorists
Accepted Freud’s basic ideas
Incorporated some Freudian ideas into psychodynamic theory; much of mental life is unconscious
Differed from Freud in two ways:
Placed more emphasis on role of the conscious mind
Doubted sex and aggression were all-consuming motivations; emphasized social interactions and other motives
Alfred Adler (1870–1937) Adler believed that childhood feelings of insecurity can drive behavior, triggering strivings for power and superiority. Adler coined the term inferiority complex.
Karen Horney (1885–1952) Horney proposed that children’s feelings of dependency give rise to feelings of helplessness and anxiety. These feelings trigger adult desires for love and security. Horney believed Freud’s views of personality showed a masculine bias.
Carl Jung (1875–1961) Jung shared Freud’s view of the power of the unconscious. He also proposed a human collective unconscious, derived from our species’ experiences in the distant past. Today’s psychology rejects the idea that experiences can be inherited.
11-5 Which of Freud’s ideas did his followers accept or reject?

17. Assessing Unconscious Processes
Spencer Grant/Science Source
Projective tests
Reveal hidden conflicts and impulses
Provide glimpse into test- taker unconsciousness
Rorschach test
Revels what seen in series of 10 ink blots reflect inner feelings and conflicts
Lacks predictive validity and reliability
Projective test a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides an unclear image designed to trigger projection of the test-taker’s unconscious thoughts or feelings.
Rorschach inkblot test the most widely used projective test; a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.
THE RORSCHACH TEST In this projective test, people tell what they see in a series of symmetrical inkblots. Some who use his test are confident that the interpretation of unclear images will reveal unconscious parts of the test-taker’s personality.

18. The Neo-Freudian and Later Psychodynamic Theorists
Evaluating Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective and modern views of the unconscious
How do modern researchers and theorists view Freud’s psychoanalysis?
Recent research contradicts many of Freud’s specific ideas
Development is lifelong, not fixed in childhood
Infant brain development is not mature enough to process emotional trauma as Freud theorized
Parental influence overestimated; peer influence underestimated
Gender develop emerges earlier than Freud predicted and ideas about childhood sexuality questioned
Dream theory discounted
Theory cannot be disproved or proven
11-7 How do today’s psychologists view Freud’s psychoanalysis?

19. The Neo-Freudian and Later Psychodynamic Theorists
Modern research challenges the idea of repression
Sometimes people spare their egos by ignoring threatening information, but repression is a rare reaction to trauma
Extreme, prolonged stress may disrupt memory by damaging the hippocampus; more common that high stress enhance memory
There is some research support for Freud’s defense mechanism
Reaction formation
Projection/false consensus effect
11-8 How has modern research developed our understanding of the unconscious?

20. The Neo-Freudian and Later Psychodynamic Theorists
The modern unconscious mind
Cognitive researchers argue that unconscious thought is part of two-track mind where information processing occurs without awareness.
Do you remember any of the research findings that confirm this view?
Right-hemisphere brain activity that enables the split-brain patient’s left hand to carry out an instruction the patient cannot verbalize. (Chapter 2).
Parallel processing of different aspects of vision and thinking, and the schemas that automatically control our perceptions and interpretations (Chapter 5).
Implicit memories that operate without our conscious recall, even among those with amnesia (Chapter 7).
Emotions we experience instantly, before conscious analysis (Chapter 9).
Self-concept and stereotypes that automatically and unconsciously influence how we process information about ourselves and others (Chapter 12).
11-8 How has modern research developed our understanding of the unconscious?

21. What are three values that Freud’s work in psychoanalytic theory has contributed? What are three ways in which Freud’s work has been criticized? Which elements of traditional psychoanalysis do modern-day psychodynamic theorists and therapists retain, and which elements have they mostly left behind?
ANSWER: Freud first drew attention to (1) the importance of childhood experiences, (2) the existence of the unconscious mind, and (3) our self protective defense mechanisms. Freud’s work has been criticized as (1) not scientifically testable—drawing on after-the-fact explanations, (2) focusing too much on sexual conflicts in childhood, and (3) based upon the idea of repression, which has not been supported by modern research.
ANSWER: Today’s psychodynamic theories still tend to focus on childhood experiences and attachments, unresolved conflicts, and unconscious influences. However, they are not likely to focus on fixation at any psychosexual stage, or the idea that sexual issues influence our personality.

22. Humanistic Theories Abraham Maslow’s self-actualizing person
Carl Rogers’ person-centered perspective
Assessing the self
Evaluating humanistic theories

23. Humanistic Theories
Focused on ways “healthy” people strive for self-determination and self-realization
Asked people to report own experiences and feelings
11- 9 How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality?
ABRAHAM MASLOW (1908–1970) “Any theory of motivation that is worthy of attention must deal with the highest capacities of the healthy and strong person as well as with the defensive maneuvers of crippled spirits”
(Motivation and Personality, 1970).

24. Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualizing Person
Hierarchy of needs: Maslow’s pyramid of human needs; at the base physiological needs must be satisfied before higher-level safety needs, and then psychological needs, become active
Self-actualization: Psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self- esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill our potential
Self-transcendence: Striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

25. Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Perspective
People have self-actualizing tendencies and are basically good.
Self-concept is central feature of personality.
Characteristics that nurture growth between any two human beings
Genuineness
Acceptance
Empathy
Growth promoting environment helps people reach their potential.

26. Unconditional positive regard
According to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person
Self-concept
All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

27. Assessing the Self Questionnaires
Used by some humanistic psychologist; questioned by others as depersonalizing
Interviews and intimate conservations
Viewed by some as method to provide better understanding of each person’s unique experiences
Aurora Open / SuperStock
11-10 How did humanistic psychologists assess a person’s sense of self?

28. Evaluating Humanistic Theories
Contributions
Influenced counseling, education, child raising, and management
Laid groundwork for today’s scientific positive psychology and influenced popular psychology
Criticisms
Concepts are vauge and based on personal opinion
Attitudes encouraged by humanistic psychology could lead to self- indulgence, selfishness, and lack of moral restraint.
Human capacity for evil is not recognized.
11-11 How have humanistic theories influenced psychology? What criticisms
have they faced?

29. How did humanistic psychology provide a fresh perspective
How did humanistic psychology provide a fresh perspective? What does it mean to be empathic ? How about self-actualized ? Which humanistic psychologists used these terms?
ANSWER: This movement sought to turn psychology’s attention away from drives and conflicts and
toward our growth potential, with a focus on the way healthy people strive for self-determination and
self-realization, which was in contrast to Freudian theory and strict behaviorism.
ANSWERS: To be empathic is to share and mirror another person’s feelings. Carl Rogers believed that people nurture growth in others by being empathic. Abraham Maslow proposed that self-actualization, the motivation to fulfill one’s potential, is one of the ultimate psychological needs (the other is self transcendence).

30. Trait Theories Exploring traits
Thinking critically about: The stigma of introversion
Assessing traits
The Big Five factors
Evaluating trait theories

31. Trait Theories Freudian and humanistic theories Trait theories Explain
Describe
11-12 How do psychologists use traits to describe personality?

32. TWO PERSONALITY FACTORS
AP Photo/Jean-Marc Bouju
Andrew Innerarity / REUTERS
Two primary personality factors (extraversion–introversion and stability–instability) are useful as axes for describing personality variation. Varying combinations define other, more specific traits. (From Eysenck & Eysenck, 1963.) Those who are naturally introverted, such as primatologist Jane Goodall, may be particularly gifted in field studies. Successful politicians, including former U.S. President Bill Clinton, are often natural extraverts.

33. Exploring Traits Gordon Allport Eysenck and Eysenck
Personality described as a stable and enduring pattern of behavior
Eysenck and Eysenck
Many normal human variations can be reduced to two factors: Extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire

34. Trait
Characteristic pattern of behavior or a tendency to feel and act in a certain way, as assessed by self- reports on a personality test
Factor
Cluster of behavior tendencies that occur together.

35. Introversion is not shyness.
Personality Traits
Western cultures prize extraversion more than all personality traits.
Introverted people experience success; introverted leaders outperform extraverted ones.
Introversion is not shyness.
Introverts: Seek low levels of stimulation because they are very sensitive
Shy people: Remain quiet because they fear others will evaluate them negatively
Bettmann/CORBIS

36. Which two primary dimensions did Hans and Sybil Eysenck propose for describing personality variation?
ANSWER: introversion–extraversion and emotional stability–instability

37. Trait Theories: Assessing Traits
Personality inventory
Involve long sets of questions covering a wide range of feelings and behaviors
Can be scored objectively; does not guarantee validity
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
Originally designed to identify emotional disorder; also assesses personality traits
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MM PI) the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.
Personality inventory a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.
11-13 What are personality inventories?

38. The “Big Five” Personality Factors
Steve Wisbauer/Getty Images

39. The Big Five Factors Big Five research has explored various questions:
How stable are these traits?
Have these traits changed over time?
Do we inherit these traits?
Do these traits reflect differing brain structure or function?
How well do these traits apply to various cultures?
Do the Big Five traits predict our actual behavior?
See page 324 for answers to each of these questions.
11-14 Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?

40. What are the Big Five personality factors, and why are they scientifically useful?
ANSWER: The Big Five personality factors are conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism (emotional stability vs. instability), openness, and extraversion (CANOE). These factors may be objectively measured, and research suggests that these factors are relatively stable across the life span and apply to all cultures in which they have been studied.

41. Evaluating Trait Theories
Person-situation controversy
Personality traits stabilize with age
Personality traits predict a person’s behavior across many different situations-average behavior
They do not neatly predict a person’s behavior in any one specific situation
11-15 Does research support the consistency of personality traits over time and across situations?

42. Reflections Of Personality Traits
Music preferences
Bedrooms and offices
Electronic stability
Social networking
The immediate situation powerfully influences our behavior, especially when the situation makes clear demands.
Karan Kapoor/Getty Images
Our spaces express our personality
Even at “zero acquaintance,” people can catch a glimpse of others’ personality from looking at their website, bedroom, or office. So, what’s your read on this person’s office?

43. How well do personality test scores predict our behavior? Explain.
ANSWER: Our scores on personality tests predict our average behavior across many situations much better than they predict our specific behavior in any given situation.

44. Social-Cognitive Theories
Reciprocal influences
Assessing behavior in situations
Evaluating social-cognitive theories

45. Bandura: Reciprocal determinism
Reciprocal influences
Focus on ways in which personality traits interact with environment to influence behavior
Social-cognitive theories
Focus on this interaction with the social world
11-16 How do social-cognitive theorists view personality development, and how do they explore behavior?

46. Social-Cognitive Theories
What is brought to the social situation?
Past learning: From conditioning or watching others
Self-efficacy: From expectations about success in new challenge
Cognition: From ways of thinking about specific situations

47. Social-Cognition Theories
Social-cognitive theorists explore the interaction among the three sets of influence:
Different people choose different environments.
Our personalities shape how we interpret and react to events.

48. The Biopsychosocial Approach to the Study of Personality
At every moment, our behavior is influenced by our biology, our social and cultural experiences, and our thought processes and traits.

49. Social-Cognitive Theories
Assessing behavior in situations
Behavior is often observed in realistic situations.
These assessments may not reveal less visible, important characteristics; but they also may reveal a person’s past behavior patterns
Evaluating social-cognitive theories
Theories build from psychological research on cognition and learning.
In some instances, they predict behavior.
11-17 What criticisms have social-cognitive theorists faced?

50. According to the social-cognitive perspective, what is the best way to predict a person’s future behavior?
ANSWER: Examine the person’s past behavior patterns in similar situations.

51. Exploring the Self The benefits of self-esteem Self-serving bias
Culture and the self

52. Exploring the Self Self-image Possible self
Involves our internal view of our personality
Is center of personality and organizer of thoughts, feelings, and actions
Possible self
Includes vision of self one dreams of becoming and fear of becoming
Image Source / Getty Images
TRYING OUT A POSSIBLE SELF As an apprentice, this young man has a chance to see how it feels to be a woodworker, while learning valuable life skills in the process.

53. Exploring the Self Spotlight effect Reducing the effect
Occurs when overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)
Reducing the effect
Know about the effect
Take the perspective of audience member
Trinity Mirror/ Mirrorpix/ Alamy
Timothy Large / Shutterstock

54. Comparing the Major Personality Theories

55. Exploring the Self Benefits of self-esteem Categories of self-esteem
High self-worth
Less pressure to conform
More persistent at difficult tasks
Less shy, anxious, and lonely
Low self-esteem
Tendency to behave negatively toward others
Categories of self-esteem
Defensive self-esteem
Secure self-esteem
Self-esteem tends to increase during adolescence and then stay fairly consistent over time
Defensive self-esteem is fragile. Its goal is to sustain itself, which makes failures and criticism feel threatening. Defensive self-esteem feeds anger and disordered responses to threats It correlates with aggressive and antisocial behavior
Secure self-esteem is sturdy. It relies less on other people’s evaluations. If we feel accepted for who we are, and not for our looks, wealth, or fame, we are free of pressures to succeed. We can focus beyond ourselves, losing ourselves in relationships and purposes larger than self.
Secure self-esteem thus leads to greater quality of life. Such findings are in line with Maslow’s and Rogers’ ideas about the benefits of a healthy self-image.

56. Exploring the Self Self-serving bias Research findings
Readiness to perceive ourselves favorably
Research findings
People accept more responsibility for good deeds than for bad, and for successes than for failures.
Most people see themselves as better than average.
Why do people put themselves down?
Protection from repeating mistakes
Mechanism to prompt positive feedback
Preparation for possible failure
Put down for old selves, not current selves
11-19 What evidence reveals self-serving bias, and how do defensive and secure self esteem differ?

57. The tendency to accept responsibility for success and blame circumstances or bad luck for failures is called ________. The tendency to overestimate others’ attention to and evaluation of our appearance, performance, and blunders is called the ________.
________ (Secure/Defensive) self-esteem correlates with aggressive and antisocial behavior. ________ (Secure/Defensive) self-esteem is a healthier self- enjoy a higher quality of life. .
ANSWERS: self-serving bias; spotlight effect
ANSWERS: Defensive; Secure

58. Exploring the Self Culture and self Individualism Collectivism
Meaning of self varies from culture to culture.
Individualism
Giving priority to our own goals over group goals and defining our identity in terms of personal traits rather than group membership
Collectivism
Giving priority to goals of our group (often our extended family or work group) and defining our identity accordingly.
11-20 How do individualist and collectivist cultures influence people?

59. A CHILD LIKE NO OTHER
Americans’ individualist tendencies are reflected in their
choice of names for their babies. In recent years, the percentage of American babies receiving one of that year’s 10 most common names has plunged. (Adapted from Twenge et al., 2010.)

60. Value Contrasts Between Individualism and Collectivism

61. How do individualist and collectivist cultures differ?
ANSWER: Individualists give priority to personal goals over group goals and tend to define their
identity in terms of their own personal attributes.
Collectivists give priority to group goals over individual goals and tend to define their identity in
terms of group identifications.