1. Organizational Behavior Lecture 8 Dr. Amna Yousaf PhD (HRM) University of Twente, the Netherlands

2. Recap Lecture 7  Goal Setting Theory  MBO as application of Goal Setting  Self-efficacy Theory  Reinforcement Theory  Equity Theory  Justice and Equity Theory  Expectancy Theory  Implications for Managers

3. Motivation: From Concepts to Applications (1) Lecture 8

4. Outline  Job Characteristics Model  How can Jobs be Redesigned?  Alternative Work Arrangements  Conclusions © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

5. Job Design Theory Characteristics: 1.Skill variety 2.Task identity 3.Task significance 4.Autonomy 5.Feedback Characteristics: 1.Skill variety 2.Task identity 3.Task significance 4.Autonomy 5.Feedback Job Characteristics Model Identifies five job characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes.

6. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Job Design Theory (cont’d)  Job Characteristics Model –Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given, directly affect three psychological states of employees: Knowledge of results Meaningfulness of work Personal feelings of responsibility for results –Increases in these psychological states result in increased motivation, performance, and job satisfaction.

7. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Job Design Theory (cont’d) Skill Variety The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities (how may different skills are used in a given day, week, month?). Task Identity The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work (from beginning to end). Task Significance The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.

8. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Job Design Theory (cont’d) Autonomy The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. Feedback The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

9. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Computing a Motivating Potential Score People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive. Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly. People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive. Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.

10. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. The Job Characteristics Model E X H I B I T 7–1 Source: J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pp. 78–80). © 1980 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.

11. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. CharacteristicsExamples Skill Variety High varietyThe owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines, does body work, and interacts with customers Low varietyA bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day Task Identity High identityA cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the object, and finishes it to perfection Low identityA worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe to make table legs Task Significance High significanceNursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit Low significanceSweeping hospital floors Autonomy High autonomyA telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, and decides on the best techniques for a particular installation Low autonomyA telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a routine, highly specified procedure Feedback High feedbackAn electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to determine if it operates properly Low feedbackAn electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a quality control inspector who tests and adjusts it Examples of High and Low Job Characteristics

12. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Job Design and Scheduling Job Rotation The periodic shifting of a worker from one task to another. Provides organization flexibility Increases training costs New co-workers; new supervisors; adjustments may take time Productivity may fall initially because of fall in experience curve

13. Job Design and Scheduling  Job Enlargement  The horizontal expansion of jobs. –Instead of only mail sorting; sorter may be asked to distribute mail –Not very fine results  Job Enrichment  The vertical expansion of jobs. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

14. Guidelines for Enriching a Job E X H I B I T 7–2 Source: J.R. Hackman and J.L. Suttle, eds., Improving Life at Work (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1977), p. 138.

15. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Alternative Work Arrangements Flextime Employees work during a common core time period each day but have discretion in forming their total workday from a flexible set of hours outside the core Advantages :lesser absenteeism, more productivity, better turnover Disadvantages: Not possible to offer flextime in all jobs.

16. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Example of a Flextime Schedule E X H I B I T 7–3

17. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Alternative Work Arrangements, cont. Categories of telecommuting jobs: Routine information handling tasks Mobile activities Professional and other knowledge-related tasks Categories of telecommuting jobs: Routine information handling tasks Mobile activities Professional and other knowledge-related tasks Telecommuting Employees do their work at home on a computer that is linked to their office.

18. © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Telecommuting  Advantages –Larger labor pool –Higher productivity –Less turnover –Improved morale –Reduced office-space costs  Disadvantages (Employer) –Less direct supervision of employees –Difficult to coordinate teamwork –Difficult to evaluate non- quantitative performance –Out of sight, out of mind –Performance evaluation

19. Alternative Work Arrangements, cont.  Job Sharing  Same job shared by two or more persons  Advantages Flexibility to organization by multiple persons in one job Flexibility to workers Organizations can avoid layoff due to overstaffing – Japan increasingly doing this Retired workers, women © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

20. Performance = f(A x M x O) E X H I B I T 6–9 Source: Adapted from M. Blumberg and C.D. Pringle, “The Missing Opportunity in Organizational Research: Some Implications for a Theory of Work Performance,” Academy of Management Review, October 1982, p. 565.

21. Management Implication  Why the employee is not performing well? Check the job and work design. –Does the employee have materials, supplies, tools, equipment to perform? How are workers? What is nature of job? How can it be made better? © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

22. Thank You © 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.