1. Chapter 2 Meaning as Sign

2. Semiology = the study of signs & symbols (also known as: the study of meaning) Language can have meaning in two ways: 1-what it says – encoded sign – (Semantics) 2- what it does in context – action – (Pragmatics)

3. The linguistic sign Human’s unique capacity to create ‘signs’ to communicate. Sign = signifier + signified 1- Signifier: sound or word (e.g. rose) 2- Signified: concept or object or idea Sign ‘refers to the relationship between the two’ Clip

4. The linguistic sign is ‘arbitrary’ – Arbitrary: subject to individual will, preference, or judgment - not to laws i.e. there is no direct relation bet the signifier and signified. – e.g. ‘table’ for both English and German speakers

5. The meaning of signs 1- Denotative: the meaning that refers to a definable reality and can be looked up in a dictionary. - e.g. ‘rose’ in poem refers to real object found in gardens. 2- Connotative: associations -of the word –that are evoked in the mind of the reader- usually ‘abstract’ concepts - e.g. (‘rose’ connotes beauty- innocence- love..) 3- Iconic: the image created by the sign - e.g. ‘onomatopoeia’ (whack - smack) - the recurrent ‘s’ sound in poem ‘crushing image’ Thus type of meaning depends on the context

6. Cultural Encodings Code: Language (either written, spoken, sign language...)- ( can also refer to part of language ‘word’) Code cannot be separated from its meaning. How does a ‘code’ get a ‘meaning’? Every culture associates specific ‘meanings’ to their code - e.g. differences in the sign ‘table’ in English and Polish Cultural encodings can also change over time in the same language. - e.g. German sign for ‘happiness’ - ‘soul’ ‘mind’ in Russian

7. Speech community Discourse community Cultural literacy: the body of knowledge that is shared by all members of a given culture. / subject to change over time ‘poem’ Example of culturally informed icons: Onomatopoeia : words that link objects to sounds / i.e. words that imitate sound/ e.g. ‘bash-mash- smash-crash’

8. Semantic Cohesion In any language, Semantic cohesion is established by: 1- cohesive devices (co-text) 2- prior text (community’s memory/ connections) 3- metaphors (e.g. shooting down someone’s argument)

9. The non-arbitrary nature of signs Signs have no natural connection with the outside world arbitrary Native speakers do not feel that words are arbitrary signs natural (feel its non-arbitrary) Why? – Reason of the Naturalization of culturally created signs their motivated nature. – Motivated by the desire of language users to communicate and influence others. – The linguistic sign is therefore a ‘motivated’ sign.

10. SYMBOLS

15. Overtime, ‘signs’ become: – 1- naturalized – 2- conventionalized (following an accepted standard/ general agreement) – Symbols: Signs are Taken out of their original context (lose their denotative and/or connotative meaning) and used as a symbolic shorthand/ example of conventionalized signs. – The recurrence of ;symbols’ shapes the memory of their users.

16. Symbol: a thing that represents something else, usually sth physical that represents sth more abstract. They help us communicate thoughts & feelings Types: visual (heart) / written (an image, setting..in book) What it represents depends on context surrounding it. Clip (symbols & symbolism)/ symbols

17. Stereotypes Is a belief that all members of a specific group share similar traits and tend to behave in a same way. A type of ‘symbolic language’ Frozen signs in a culture Usually promotes negative themes in a culture Clip (mute)