1. Information Processing in Management and Marketing: Personality Styles and Meaning Profiles Shulamith Kreitler, Ph.D. Department of Psychology Tel-Aviv University Tel-Aviv, Israel Tel +972-3-5227185 Fax +972-3-5225371 E-mail Krit@netvision.net.il

2. In management and marketing information processing plays a role in: The daily work of the manager who has to deal with large amounts of information The daily work of the manager who has to deal with large amounts of information The act of communication which consists in the exchange of information between two or more individuals The act of communication which consists in the exchange of information between two or more individuals The act of purchasing, i.e., processes involved in the decision to buy, the buying and the evaluation afterwards. The act of purchasing, i.e., processes involved in the decision to buy, the buying and the evaluation afterwards.

3. Cybernetics INFORMATION Psychosemantics MEANING

4. Purpose: Purpose: –To present a theory and methodology, based on the meaning system, that enable assessing information processing in management and marketing Structure of talk: Structure of talk: A.Presentation of the meaning system B.Application of the meaning system to assessing meaning styles of individuals in management and in marketing C.Application of the meaning system to promoting purchasing

5. A. Presentation of the meaning system Developed by Kreitler and Kreitler, since 1968 onward

6. A.The system of meaning (Kreitler & Kreitler) Cognition is a system that works with meaning, namely, it responds to meanings, and produces, elaborates, stores, transforms and uses meanings.

7. Assumptions Underlying the Meaning System Meaning is communicable Meaning is complex Meaning includes a personal- subjective part and an interpersonally-shared part

8. Meaning is a pattern of cognitive contents focused on a referent.

9. A referent can be an external or internal stimulus, a situation, an event, an individual, a product, the act of purchasing, etc.

10. The cognitive contents are designed to express or communicate information that would enable identifying the referent, handling it, responding to it, or dealing with it within the psychological domain.

11. The cognitive content and the referent form together the meaning unit. Referent – Meaning Value Examples: Hong Kong – is a wonderful city An airport – serves for transportation

12. The cognitive content is called meaning value because it fulfills the role of expressing or communicating meaning.

13. The meaning unit is characterized in terms of the following 5 sets of variables: Referent – Meaning Value Shifts in Referent Types of Relation Forms of Relation Forms of Expression Meaning Dimensions

14. The psychosemantic method consists in coding the responses in terms of the following categories: Meaning dimensions: Content categories, such as Feelings and Emotions, Actions, Sensory Qualities (color, shape, etc.), Size, Weight Types of Relation: Relational categories, such as Attributive, Comparative, Illustrative-Exemplifying, Metaphoric-Symbolic. Forms of Relation : Formative categories, such as Positive or Negative, Simple or Complex (e.g., Conjunctive, Disjunctive), Absolute or Modified (e.g., always, sometimes) Shifts of Referent : Categories of shifts to other constructs, such as from Ocean to Lake, from House to Windows Forms of Expression : Categories of means of expression, such as words, drawings, movements, denoted objects

15. Examples of Meaning Variables Meaning Dimensions Meaning Dimensions –Range of inclusion –Material –Functions –Feelings & Emotions Types of Relations Types of Relations –Attributive –Comparative –Exemplifying-illustrative –Metaphoric-symbolic Forms of Relation Forms of Relation –Positive, Negative –Conjunctive, Disjunctive –Normative Referent Shifts Referent Shifts –Identical to input –Part of input –Association Forms of Expression Forms of Expression –Verbal –Gestural –Graphic

16. Meaning Test Instructions: Communicate to another person the meaning (interpersonally-shared and personal) of a presented set of stimuli, using any means of communication considered adequate. Stimuli: Street, Bicycle, Sea (ocean), to take, to kill, Telephone, etc.

17. Examples of Coded Responses Forms of Expression Shifts of Referent Forms of Relation Types of Relation Meaning Dimensions Stimulus: Hong Kong VerbalNonePositiveAttributive Contextual Allocation / Judgements & Evaluation A beautiful city VerbalNonePositiveComparative Locational Qualities More southern than Beijing Verbal Part of (center) PositiveAttributive Feelings & Emotions I love it ’ s center

18. Meaning Profile Frequencies (proportions) of individual’s use of each meaning variable in responding to the stimuli of the meaning test.

19. Functions of Meaning In regard to cognition In regard to cognition In regard to personality In regard to personality In regard to states of consciousness In regard to states of consciousness In regard to behavior In regard to behavior In regard to physiological responses In regard to physiological responses

21. Meaning Variables and Cognition Cognitive contents, information Meaning values Cognitive processes Meaning variables Cognitive acts, structural schemas Meaning profiles Meaning

22. 1. Meaning Values and Cognitive Contents Meaning values correspond to cognitive contents and information. Examples: When the individual ’ s meaning profile shows a high frequency of the meaning dimension Locational Qualities, that individual may be expected to have a lot of labels, words, information in the domain of location, places, routes.

23. 2. Meaning Values and Cognitive Processes Cognitive processes correspond to specific meaning variables or combinations of meaning variables. Examples: Shifting from one theme to another – High frequency of referent shifts of medium degree (e.g., shifting to previous response, or to superordinate referent) Associations – High number of meaning values (absolute and especially relative), high number of different shifts of referent Abstracting – High frequency of meaning dimension Contextual Allocation

24. 3. Meaning Profiles and Cognitive Acts Cognitive acts correspond to specific combinations of meaning variables that constitute complete profiles.

25. Meaning Profile of Planning Meaning Dimensions Meaning Dimensions –Contextual allocation –Range of inclusion –Actions –Manner of operation –Antecedents & causes –Consequences & results –Range of application –Structure –Quantity & numbers –Locational qualities –Temporal qualities –Sensory qualities (-) –Judgments & evaluations Types of Relation Types of Relation –Attributive –Metaphoric-symbolic (-) Forms of Relation –Propositional, positive & negative –Partial –Conjunctive –Disjunctive Shifts of Referent Shifts of Referent –Close shifts: Parts, Former responses, Grammatical variations –Medium shifts: Input modified by addition, Combination of several former responses –Distant shifts (-) : Associations, Labels Forms of Expression Forms of Expression –Verbal, Verbal desc???? By drawings

26. Further cognitive acts whose meaning profiles were identified: Memory for verbal material / names / faces Memory for verbal material / names / faces Analogical thinking Analogical thinking Inventive thinking Inventive thinking Creativity Creativity Exploration and curiosity Exploration and curiosity Various cognitive styles (e.g., impulsiveness vs. reflectivity, monitoring vs. blunting) Various cognitive styles (e.g., impulsiveness vs. reflectivity, monitoring vs. blunting)

27. Meaning Variables and Personality Each personality trait corresponds to a profile of meaning variables

28. Example: Meaning profile of extraversion Meaning Dimensions Meaning Dimensions –Contextual allocation –Range of inclusion –Actions –Results & Consequences (-) –Size & dimensions –Quantity & numbers –Temporal qualities (-) –Possessions –Sensory qualities (-) (experienced by referent) –Sensory qualities (of object) –Judgments & evaluations (-) Types of Relation Types of Relation –Attributive –Metaphoric (-) Forms of Relation Forms of Relation –Positive Referent Shifts Referent Shifts –Associations (-) [Source: Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1990). The Cognitive Foundations of Personality Traits. New York: Plenum]

29. For example, There are meaning profiles corresponding to: Leadership (Fiedler ’ s LPC) Leadership (Fiedler ’ s LPC) Alexithymia Alexithymia Narcissism Narcissism Tendency to experience anxiety Tendency to experience anxiety Tendency to apply different defense mechanisms, such as repression, denial, projection Tendency to apply different defense mechanisms, such as repression, denial, projection

30. Two Modes of Meaning Personal-Subjective Personal-Subjective –Exemplifying-Illustrative –Metaphoric-Symbolic Interpersonally-Shared Interpersonally-Shared –Attributive –Comparative Effects on: Effects on: –Gestalt perception –Creativity –Fantasy –Logical reasoning [Source: Kreitler, S. (1999). Consciousness and meaning. In J. Singer & P. Salovey (Eds.), At Play in the Fields of Consciousness: Essays in Honor of Jerome L. Singer. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum (pp. 175-206)] Meaning Variables and States of Consciousness

31. Training Meaning Variables 1. Determining the meaning variables targetted for training 2. Training each targetted meaning variable separately 3. Strengthening the targetted meaning variable 4. Elaborating the meaning of the targetted meaning variable 5. Explaining the use of the targetted meaning variable Principles of the Training

32. B. Application of the Meaning System to Assessing Meaning Profiles of Individuals in Management and Marketing

33. Administering the Meaning Test to an individual enables determining the individual ’ s Meaning Profile

34. Major Uses of the Meaning Profile Assessment Evaluation of personnel Evaluation of personnel Selection of personnel Selection of personnel Training of personnel Training of personnel

35. Meaning Profile Grasping and Comprehending Information Getting Information Communicating with Others Cognitive Acts Personality Traits Personality Disposition & Emotional Tendencies

36. Correspondence between Meaning Profiles Possibility to determine to what extent an individual ’ s meaning profile : Corresponds to the meaning profile of some standard, e.g., of the “ good manager ”, “ creative manager ” Corresponds to the meaning profile of some standard, e.g., of the “ good manager ”, “ creative manager ” Corresponds to the meaning profile of the individuals (one or more) with whom he/she is to cooperate Corresponds to the meaning profile of the individuals (one or more) with whom he/she is to cooperate

37. Meaning Profile of the “ Good ” Manager (based on the meaning variables common to 12 managers in different high-tech firms, evaluated by their peers and supervisors) Meaning Dimensions Meaning Dimensions –Contextual allocation –Function –Manner of operation –Consequences –Causes (-) –Domain of application –State Types of Relation Types of Relation –Attributive –Comparative – Difference –Exemplifying (-) –Metaphoric (-) Forms of Relation Forms of Relation –Positive –Partial (not universal) –Conjunctive –Disjunctive –Normative –Desired (-) Referent Shifts Referent Shifts –Close shifts –Medium shifts –Distant shifts (-)

38. Index of Similarity in regard to Meaning Profiles: Steps of Construction: Steps of Construction: 1. Determine the meaning profiles of two individuals (or one individual and “ standard ” profile) Procedure A Procedure A 2. Correlate the two profiles. The Spearman Product-Moment Coefficient yields the measure of similarity Procedure B Procedure B 2. For each meaning variable determine whether its score is above the group ’ s mean (for “ positive ” variables) or below (for negative variables) 3. Count the number of variables in the meaning profiles that are both above or below the group ’ s mean. The number yields a gross measure of similarity. Note. The same procedures can be applied for more than two meaning profiles

39. Preliminary findings concerning team work (High-Tech firms) Mean Rating of Effectiveness (1-7) Mean Rating of Satisfaction (1-7) Mean of Similarity Indices No. of Individuals Team 3.22.7 Mean r=.39 4 Team A 4.95.6 Mean r=.52 5 Team B

40. Selection of Personnel The meaning profile enables selecting, for the organization or for particular positions in the organization, individuals with desired tendencies in regard to cognition, personality and behavior.

41. Procedures of selection 1.Determine or retrieve the meaning profile corresponding to the cognitive act or personality trait or behavior of interest 2.Determine the individual ’ s meaning profile 3.Compute the index of similarity between the individual ’ s meaning profile and the meaning profile corresponding to the desired cognitive act, personality trait or behavior

42. Training of Personnel Steps in the training procedure Steps in the training procedure 1.Determine or retrieve the meaning profile corresponding to the cognitive, personality or behavior tendency of interest 2.Determine the individual ’ s meaning profile 3.Compare the individual ’ s meaning profile to the meaning profile of the desired tendency and determine in which meaning variables it deviates 4.Apply the training process with the individual in regard to the targetted meaning variables

43. C. Application of the Meaning system to Promoting Purchasing

44. Meaning Profile of the “ good ” purchaser Meaning of purchasing the item

45. Means for promoting purchasing: Procedure A: Focus on the meaning profile of the “ good ” purchaser Procedure A: Focus on the meaning profile of the “ good ” purchaser a) Determine the meaning profile of the “ good ” (desired) purchaser Criteria (examples): amounts of purchasing Frequency of purchasing Range of purchasing Selectivity of purchasing b) Evoke the relevant meaning variables when advertising items or presenting them on display for purchasing

46. Meaning Profile of Purchaser Buying it will stimulate positive evaluations of the purchaser Meaning Dimension Judgments and Evaluation Displayed Item

47. Procedure B: Focus on the meaning of purchasing a given set of items Procedure B: Focus on the meaning of purchasing a given set of items Meaning of Purchasing Specific Item Functional Present for myself Characteristics of displaying & Selling Many different kinds together Each kind separately Simple context Elaborate context High accessibility for handling Low accessibility for handling No salesperson Salesperson involvement No wrapping Special or selected wrapping Fast, simple paying procedure Elaborative slowed-down paying procedure Purchaser brings the item to cashier Salesperson or cashier hands the item to the purchaser

48. Conclusions The meaning system provides concepts and tools for assessing processes underlying cognitive, emotional, personality and behavior tendencies. The meaning system provides concepts and tools for assessing processes underlying cognitive, emotional, personality and behavior tendencies. The major concepts are meaning units, referent, meaning value, and meaning variable. The major concepts are meaning units, referent, meaning value, and meaning variable. The major tool is the Meaning Test that yields the meaning profile. The major tool is the Meaning Test that yields the meaning profile. The meaning system enables improving the Evaluation, Selection and Training of personnel in management. The meaning system enables improving the Evaluation, Selection and Training of personnel in management. The meaning system provides means for promoting purchasing by focusing on the purchaser or on the meaning of the items to be purchased and of the act of purchasing. The meaning system provides means for promoting purchasing by focusing on the purchaser or on the meaning of the items to be purchased and of the act of purchasing.