1. Evolution of metabolism: CELLULAR RESPIRATION
IMSS BIOLOGY ~ SUMMER 2012

2. LEARNING TARGETS
To understand the evidence for the evolutionary origin of cellular respiration.
To understand the impact of oxygen on the evolution of multicellular life on Earth.
To understand the processes by which cellular respiration harvests chemical energy from food and converts it into ATP that fuels cellular work.
To understand the distinctions between aerobic & anaerobic respiration
To understand the role respiration plays on a cellular, organismal, & ecological scales.

3. Follow up: Photosynthesis Q’s
All plants and most other photosynthetic organisms contain chlorophyll (primary pigment is chl a), but
At least one group of bacteria (halobacteria) rely solely on bacteriorhodopsin (derived from carotene) for photosynthesis

4. Theory of endosymbiosis
First proposed by Lynn Margulis in 1960s
Much evidence to support eukaryotic cellular respiration originated via endosymbiosis of aerobic purple bacteria (alpha- proteobacteria) which ultimately became mitochondria.
Note: this drawing shows mitochondria endosymbiosis in BOTH animal and plant cells.

5. Both figures depict endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria
Both figures depict endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria. Which important details are portrayed in the one above that are not below (and vice versa)?

6. Supporting evidence for endosymbiosis
Mitochondria have own genome (mtDNA) and are self- replicating (divide independently of cell they live in)
Genomes are much reduced from alpha-proteobacteria (purple aerobic bacteria) ancestors
mtDNA, mtRNA, ribosomes, and mechanisms of protein synthesis and oxidative metabolism all similar to that of proteobacteria
Mitochondria have double phospholipid bilayers
Evidence supports mitochondria arose ca. 2 bya in a common ancestor of all extant eukaryotes
mtDNA inherited by one’s mother (maternal lineage)

7. Human mtDNA contains 37 genes which code for proteins needed for normal mitochondrial function, e.g. 13 genes that code for enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation.

8. Mitochondria functions – beyond oxidative metabolism
Oxidative phosphorylation to make ATP
Greatly increases capacities to make ATP!
Many other cellular activities
Assist in regulation of apoptosis (timed cell death)
Genes code for proteins involved in synthesis of heme and cholesterol
Help keep intracellular levels of Ca+2 low inside neurons – important in cell signaling pathways

9. Nuclear DNA is inherited from all ancestors
Nuclear DNA is inherited from all ancestors. Mitochondrial DNA is inherited from a single maternal lineage.

10. ACTIVITY
The Hunt for mtDNA
15 min.

11. Atmospheric O2 through earth’s history
By 1.5 bya, photosynthesis-derived O2 accumulated to significant levels in atmosphere; this in conjunction with mitochondria  Cambrian Explosion during which metazoan radiation occurred

12. Life in an oxygenated world
Oxygen is highly reactive and potentially toxic – production of reactive oxygen species (radicals), or ROS causes damage to cell membranes, DNA, RNA, proteins (including enzymes and their cofactors)
Aging = accumulated cellular damage caused by ROS

13. Evolution of multicellularity – from a metabolic perspective
Chloroplasts & mitochondria meet nrg demands of cell via their electron transport systems which generate ROS  oxidative stress and DNA damage in organelles
In unicellular organisms, DNA repair is only way to maintain pristine chromosomal DNA in organelles, but DNA repair is limited.
Better strategy: avoid DNA damage by having separate germ and somatic cell lines
Germ (reproductive) cells: metabolically quiet early in development  germ line DNA protected from oxidative damage
Somatic cells: must be metabolically active as responsive to rapid change
Bendich, A.J

14. Energetics of genome complexity
All complex life composed of eukaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cells arose from prokaryotes just once in 4 billion years. Why haven’t prokaryotes evolved greater complexity?
Lane and Martin (2010) propose that prokaryotic genome constrained by energetics
Endoysymbiosis of mitochondria opened door for 200- fold expansion in number of genes that can be expressed.
75% of cell’s total nrg budget allocated to protein synthesis.
life-%E2%80%93-it-was-all-about-energy

15. resources
Big themes in evolution of photosynthesis and respiration
Origins of development of eukaryotic organisms – mtDNA and cpDNA
Evolution 101http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/news/071101_geneal ogy

16. Introduction to Respiration
Via the circulatory system, O2 is delivered to & CO2 is taken away from tissues
Recall that most metabolic processes of the body depend on ATP
What is the function of O2 in cellular respiration?

17. Respiration
Involves ALL processes that deliver O2 from environment to the tissues (cells), including
breathing
gas exhange between air & blood and between blood & tissues
transport of respiratory gases by blood
use of O2 in cellular respiration (aka “internal respiration”)

18. Cellular Respiration - Overview
occurs primarily in mitochondria
harvests nrg stored in organic “fuel” molecules, e.g. glucose (C6H12O6) by enzymatically breaking these molecules down to release their potential nrg
traps and stores this potential nrg in a form that is usable by the cell – ATP!
uses O2
produces waste products, CO2 & H2O (used in photosynthesis)
Alternative mode: at ocean’s bottom and other anoxic environments, anaerobic organisms synthesize ATP using nitrate or sulfur rather than oxygen

19. Cellular Respiration - Overview
The cells of aerobic organisms (e.g. plant & animals) perform cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is the primary way chemical nrg is harvested from food and converted into ATP
ATP = adenosine triphosphate
“Currency” of cellular work
To get nrg to do cellular work, cells must break down energy- containing substances to release their potential nrg  stored as ATP that can be later used by cell to fuel an endergonic reaction
ATPase is enzyme that hydrolyzes this terminal phosphate bond

20. Getting the Perspective
A HUGE amount of ATP is needed to fuel all the cellular activities of an organism!
Example
Average human at rest uses ~45 kg (99 lbs.) of ATP per day (but has surplus of < 1 g of ATP at any given moment)
Estimated that each cell generates & consumes ~10 x 106 molecules of ATP per sec!
So, ATP production must be an on-going process in order to remain alive
Evidence of cellular respiration indicates life!!!

21. ACTIVITY
Is it Alive?
30 min.

22. Glucose loses electrons Oxygen gains electrons (and hydrogen)
Oxidation
Glucose loses electrons
(and hydrogen)
C6H12O6
 6 O2 6
CO2
 6
H2O
Glucose
Oxygen
Carbon
dioxide
Water
Reduction
Oxygen gains electrons (and hydrogen)
Most common fuel molecule for cell. resp. is glucose (C6H12O6)
Overall redox reaction: glu oxidized (loses electrons) while O2 reduced (gains electrons)

23. Role of Oxygen in Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration can produce up to 38 ATP molecules for each glucose molecule consumed
During cell. resp., hydrogen (H) & its bonding electrons change “partners”
H & electrons go from glu  O2, forming H2O (& ATP)
This H transfer is why O2 is so vital to cellular respiration

24. Critical Redox Reaction
When hydrogen and water bind to form water, a “burst” of nrg is released
This nrg released as electrons of hydrogen “fall” into their new bonds with oxygen
But, the process needs to be stepped down for a cell to capture this nrg and use it for cellular work.

25. Role of Electron Transfer
Cellular respiration can be considered a controlled fall of electrons that releases nrg in a stepwise way, like walking down a staircase

26. 1st step: transfer of electrons from glucose to NAD+ (electron acceptor) which reduces it to NADH

27. Rest of path: electron transport chain
Involves series of redox reactions
Leads to production of lots of ATP

28. Unpacking Cellular Respiration
The chemical reactions involved in cellular respiration are grouped into three main stages
Glycolysis
Citric acid cycle
Electron transport chain

29. The Big Picture

30. Electron transport chain functions like a chemical machine
Uses nrg released by “fall” of electrons (“pulled” by O2) to pump hydrogen ions (H+) across inner mitochondrial membrane  H+ more concentrated on one side of membrane
This H+ can then rush “downhill” thru membrane protein that “spins” the turbine to activate the enzyme, ATP synthase
Fig. 6.11

31. Cyanide is a deadly poison, because it
Binds to a protein complex in the chain and prevents passage of electrons to O2
Stops ATP synthesis

32. Summary of ATP yield during cellular respiration
If we go back to our example of the typical human at rest who burns 10 million molecules of ATP/s, and if the yield is 38 ATPs per molecule of glucose, then we see that this human will need to use 263,158 glucose molecules/s (or another way to look at it – this person will need to go through the above process over 250,000 times per sec to fuel cellular work (and that’s when the body is AT REST)!

33. Monomers from food macromolecules serve as fuel for cellular respiration

34. Anaerobic Respiration
Some cells can actually work for (short) periods without O2, i.e., anaerobically
Sometimes referred to as fermentation
Involves glycolysis  lactic acid
Without O2, electrons “dumped” from NADH onto pyruvic acid in order to regenerate NAD+, so lactic acid is formed

35. Cellular respiration in Yeast
Yeast (the living organisms in soil sample C of the “It’s Alive” activity) are facultative aerobes.
Undergo aerobic respiration when O2 is present – as was the case during the activity – sugar molecules, CO2 (what caused the bubbling in the sample), water, and a high yield of ATP
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP (hi yield)
Undergo alcoholic fermentation when O2 is absent – sugar molecules broken down into ethanol, CO2 and a low yield of ATP
C6H12O6  6C2H5OH + 2CO2 + ATP (low yield)

36. Fig. 6.2: Nrg flow & chemical cycling in ecosystems

37. Misconception:
Plants only perform photosynthesis
Plants perform BOTH photosynthesis and cellular respiration
Plants must be able to harvest nrg (synthesize ATP) from fuel molecules (e.g. glu) in order to grow & reproduce just as animals do
Animals perform cellular respiration only