1. 2 College of Business Research Director and Prof. of Mgt. & Quant. MethodsCollege of Business Research Director and Prof. of Mgt. & Quant. Methods.

2 College of Business Research Director and Prof. of Mgt. & Quant. MethodsCollege of Business Research Director and Prof. of Mgt. & Quant. Methods Ph. D. in Business Administration (Strategic Management), 1983Ph. D. in Business Administration (Strategic Management), 1983 Honors/Awards/Recognitions:Honors/Awards/Recognitions: Recipient of the “Outstanding University Researcher Award”Recipient of the “Outstanding University Researcher Award” (One of only three COB faculty who have ever received it) (One of only three COB faculty who have ever received it) Recipient of the “Manahan Family Award for Teaching Excellence”Recipient of the “Manahan Family Award for Teaching Excellence” Designated as a “Caterpillar Faculty Scholar”Designated as a “Caterpillar Faculty Scholar” Recipient of the “Outstanding College of Business Researcher Award”Recipient of the “Outstanding College of Business Researcher Award” Recipient of the “Outstanding MQM Department Researcher Award”Recipient of the “Outstanding MQM Department Researcher Award” Member of Editorial Review Boards of 3 research journalsMember of Editorial Review Boards of 3 research journals Recipient of many Outstanding Research/Best Paper Awards at various conferencesRecipient of many Outstanding Research/Best Paper Awards at various conferences Reviewer for several other journals and national/international conferencesReviewer for several other journals and national/international conferences Published approx. 40 research articles in academic and professional journalsPublished approx. 40 research articles in academic and professional journals Published many chapters/articles in various books.Published many chapters/articles in various books. Presented more than 60 research papers in international/national conferencesPresented more than 60 research papers in international/national conferences and published them in the proceedings of those conferences and published them in the proceedings of those conferences Extensive business consulting/management training experienceExtensive business consulting/management training experience Caterpillar, Country Insurance & Financial Services, Hardees Enterprises, City of Bloomington, Children’s Foundation, Digital Monitoring Solutions, etc.Caterpillar, Country Insurance & Financial Services, Hardees Enterprises, City of Bloomington, Children’s Foundation, Digital Monitoring Solutions, etc.

3 FO C US OF THE COURSE? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Meaning of “Methodology”??? Meaning of “Methodology”??? A sub-field of epistemology which is, in turn, a branch of philosophy (see next slide).A sub-field of epistemology which is, in turn, a branch of philosophy (see next slide). Methodology is concerned with:Methodology is concerned with: Methods/tools of discovering the unknown and pursuing the “truth” Methods/tools of discovering the unknown and pursuing the “truth” Science of acquiring knowledge and establishing its truth/validity Science of acquiring knowledge and establishing its truth/validity Methodology: “The Science (and art) of conducting science” Methodology: “The Science (and art) of conducting science”

4  PHILOSOPHY means “love of wisdom” It is the rational pursuit of the truth and nature of existence/being. It is the rational pursuit of the truth and nature of existence/being. The “mother discipline” from which other scientific disciplines emerged. The “mother discipline” from which other scientific disciplines emerged.  IN THE BEGINNING, all systematic/rational searches of knowledge and wisdom constituted philosophy, but primarily focused on: Ontology (nature of existence/being and man’s relationship to existence) Ontology (nature of existence/being and man’s relationship to existence) Cosmology and Astronomy (origin and structure/rational order of the universe) Cosmology and Astronomy (origin and structure/rational order of the universe) Logic, Mathematics & Science (mathematical/logical analysis to understand nature) Logic, Mathematics & Science (mathematical/logical analysis to understand nature) Epistemology (nature of knowledge and methods of obtaining knowledge) Epistemology (nature of knowledge and methods of obtaining knowledge) Spiritual/Theological Issues (especially in the Middle Ages) Spiritual/Theological Issues (especially in the Middle Ages) Ethics and Government (man’s conduct/morality, relationship with other men, and forms of government and their pros and cons) Ethics and Government (man’s conduct/morality, relationship with other men, and forms of government and their pros and cons)  TODAY, focus of philosophy includes: Metaphysics (understanding the nature of ultimate reality) Metaphysics (understanding the nature of ultimate reality) Epistemology (nature of knowledge, its sources, and its validity) Epistemology (nature of knowledge, its sources, and its validity) Ethics (perspectives on right/wrong, fairness, justice, etc.) Ethics (perspectives on right/wrong, fairness, justice, etc.) Logic (principles of reasoning and rational argumentation) Logic (principles of reasoning and rational argumentation) Aesthetics (the theory of the nature of art, beauty, etc.) Aesthetics (the theory of the nature of art, beauty, etc.) Aristotle & Plato at the Academy of Athens, by Raphael (1510), Fresco, Vatican

INTRODUCTION: MAN’S QUEST FOR ANSWERS INTRODUCTION: MAN’S QUEST FOR ANSWERS Man’s existential questions regarding: The nature of his existence, his place in this world, and the way his world works, how much control over destiny, what is the truth, and how to go about finding out the truth. The nature of his existence, his place in this world, and the way his world works, how much control over destiny, what is the truth, and how to go about finding out the truth. The different means that have been employed to answer these fundamental questions: The different means that have been employed to answer these fundamental questions: 1.Appeal to intuition, self-evident, common sense, authority, tradition, superstition, religious faith, majority judgment, etc. 1.Philosophy (speculative thought based on rational analysis and logical/objective reasoning, to arrive at conclusions based on logical necessity) 2.Theology (philosophical speculations to explain/justify religious dogma as offered by divine revelation—religion through a philosophical lens) 3.Modern Science (developing explanations of natural phenomena based on rational and objective analysis of sensible/observational evidence)

6 A Historical Journey Through The Evolution of Epistemology The Focus of this Presentation: To examine the historical forces that have shaped modern man’s perspectives on epistemology. To examine the historical forces that have shaped modern man’s perspectives on epistemology. “Episteme” (Greek word): “Episteme” (Greek word): Organized knowledge (science) Organized knowledge (science) Epistemology (theory of knowledge, what is true knowledge and the proper ways of getting at it) Epistemology (theory of knowledge, what is true knowledge and the proper ways of getting at it) a.The nature of knowledge (What constitutes true knowledge?) b.Its sources and methods (How it is supposed to be acquired?) c.Its Validity (The ways to establishing its truth?) d.The appropriate methods for advancing science/knowledge

7 A Journey Through The Evolution of Epistemology A Journey Through The Evolution of Epistemology The Genesis of written knowledge goes back to Mesopotamia (today’s Iraq) The Genesis of written knowledge goes back to Mesopotamia (today’s Iraq) THE VERY BEGINNING-- Emergence of Writing & Alphabet: World’s first writing systems 3300 BC: World’s first writing systems 3300 BC: First standard alphabet 1100 BC: First standard alphabet 1100 BC: Symbols to represent vowels, 750 BC Symbols to represent vowels, 750 BC

THE VERY BEGINNINGS 8 Important Discoveries in Numbering Systems: Positional notation in numbers discovered around 3500 BC Positional notation in numbers discovered around 3500 BC Mesopotamia (by Babylonians & Sumerians) Mesopotamia (by Babylonians & Sumerians) Base of 60 Base of 60 Zero not understood Zero not understood The concept of 0 properly understood/used 350 BC The concept of 0 properly understood/used 350 BC In Mesopotamia (by Babylonians) In Mesopotamia (by Babylonians) Then by Greeks Then by Greeks 0 and the decimal system, Hindus around 1200 years ago (AD 750) 0 and the decimal system, Hindus around 1200 years ago (AD 750) But, in Europe, not until the 1100’s (when Arabic numerals were finally adopted) through translations of the works of Khawrazmi (Iran, 780-850). But, in Europe, not until the 1100’s (when Arabic numerals were finally adopted) through translations of the works of Khawrazmi (Iran, 780-850).

9  Organized knowledge and the modern scientific methods owe their development directly to three major knowledge explosions in philosophy and science: 1.In Greece around 6 th century BC. 2.In the Muslim World (especially by Persians/Iranians) around 8 th - 12 th century. 3.Began in Europe during the 16 th & 17 th century scientific revolution and the 18 th century enlightenment era (“the age of reason”). 3.Began in Europe during the 16 th & 17 th century scientific revolution and the 18 th century enlightenment era (“the age of reason”). History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Through Philosophical, Religious, and Political Crossroads

10 First Knowledge Explosion--The Greek Domination: First Knowledge Explosion--The Greek Domination: From 600 BC through the 16 th century, the development of virtually all philosophy and science was dominated (or greatly influenced) by the work of ancient Greek philosophers : From 600 BC through the 16 th century, the development of virtually all philosophy and science was dominated (or greatly influenced) by the work of ancient Greek philosophers : Raphael (1483-15 ), Academy of Athens, Fresco, Vatican History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Through Philosophical, Religious, and Political Crossroads

11  Thales (625-546 BC) --Birth of Science/Philosophy: Explanation for how the material world was constructed. Without resorting to supernatural explanations. Was the first to assume: World is an ordered entity, intelligible, & explainable in terms of one or more underlying elements. −Water--the single entity/element that underlies everything else in the world. His work marked the birth of science! Soon after, other Greeks began thinking about the world in similar ways. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Through Philosophical, Religious, and Political Crossroads

12  Pythagoras (570- 495 BC)— A Mathematical World: First to propose a mathematically constructed universe First to propose a mathematically constructed universe intelligible in mathematical terms intelligible in mathematical terms Continuation of his work by other Pythagorean philosophers Continuation of his work by other Pythagorean philosophers  Socrates (470 - 400 BC) Mainly concerned with ethics and politics. Mainly concerned with ethics and politics. NOT interested in scientific research, but viewed knowledge a virtue. NOT interested in scientific research, but viewed knowledge a virtue. Believe: Just as the human person is guided by the power of his mind, the world is also guided by a knowing power that operates the universe in an orderly fashion based on some natural laws. Believe: Just as the human person is guided by the power of his mind, the world is also guided by a knowing power that operates the universe in an orderly fashion based on some natural laws. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Through Philosophical, Religious, and Political Crossroads

13 With Plato and Aristotle, a long-standing philosophical debate began surrounding the theory of knowledge, centering around the following issues: 1.The nature of existence. a.Objects exist independent of our mind and perception (materialism), vs b.Material objects exist only because we perceive them (idealism). 2.The nature of reality. What is real? What constitutes primary reality? a.The material things of the experiencible “phenomenal world” as they appear to our senses (e.g., beautiful things, or various individual cats)—Realism vs a.The transcendent, changeless, perfect prototypes of worldly entities of the “noumenal world” (Plato’s Idea/Forms/Universals) as they actually are beyond our mind/senses (e.g., beauty, or what it is to be a cat)—Idealism That is, the question of whether there is a duality/distinction between: The noumenal world: The real world of perfect Platonic entities (Ideas/Forms); the world as it actually is, and The phenomenal world: The experiencible world of imperfect material objects (“particulars”); the world as it appears to our senses. (Continued…) History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Plato & Aristotle in Academy of Athens, Raphael, Fresco, Vatican

14 3.The nature of knowledge. What constitutes true knowledge? a.Does knowledge pertains to understanding of the experiencible material objects of the natural world (i.e., “Particulars”)? Or b.Does it pertain to understanding of the intelligible, transcendent, changeless entities/concepts of the noumenal world (i.e., “Universals”) 4.The Source of knowledge. a.Knowledge is a priori (inborn/innate). That is, it is already planted in the mind prior to our birth and, thus, we only have to uncover it (Rationalism). b.We are born with a blank slate (tabula rasa) and, thus, knowledge is only attainable through interaction with the material world--through experience and sense perception (Empiricism) 5.Method of acquiring knowledge. a.Should knowledge be acquired intellectually through contemplation, reasoning, and logical analysis in the mind (Rationalism)? Or b.Should it be acquired experientially through careful observation, experimentation, and sense perception (Empiricism)? History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Plato & Aristotle in Academy of Athens, Raphael, Fresco, Vatican

15 Plato’s (427-347 BC) 1.A philosophical idealist and rationalist 2.Intuitive and spiritual 3.God being perfect architected/arranged/designed a perfect world. 4.So, the entities of this real “noumenal world” must be perfect/changeless. perfect prototypes (transcendent/ideal entities) Plato calls these perfect prototypes (transcendent/ideal entities)“Ideas/Forms”. –Characteristics created by God, in which material beings/objects partake. Examples: Cat (or universal “catness”) vs this or that particular cat, virtue vs virtuous individuals, beauty vs beautiful objects,, etc. 4.But, observable objects (“particulars”) of the experiencible ”phenomenal world” are NOT perfect (since many of each exist, & multiplicity rules out perfection). So, they must not have primary reality and must be just illusory/shadowy imperfect reflections/copies of the real thing (i.e., Ideas/Forms). This is why the experience-based understanding of these material things (“particulars”) is unreliable and subject to disagreement. 5.As such, such an understanding amounts to mere OPINIONS.  OPINION is just assumptions about reality based on appearances. 6.TRUE KNOLEDGE, being certain and infallible (there is only one truth), must pertain to the perfect reality represented by Ideas/Forms. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Plato & Aristotle in Academy of Athens, Raphael, Fresco, Vatican

16 Therefore, real knowledge involves concepts/definitions, NOT objects. 7.Since true knowledge CANNT be learned through interacting with/ experiencing the material world (phenomenal world), then, it: a.must be (like in mathematics) deduced intuitively/intellectually through contemplation and intellectual reasoning in the mind. Where we are NOT hand-strung by physical/perceptual limitations. b.Must be brought to us from an earlier existence (it is inborn/a priori). Implications? 8. In short, Plato was prejudiced against studying the observable/material world Saw reality as being intelligible; not sensible. Saw knowledge as pertaining to abstract Saw knowledge as pertaining to abstract concepts, NOT sensible objects. 9. He dismissed validity of the senses, and the role of observations, in understanding the real world and in advancing true knowledge. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Plato (427 BC - 347 B C ) We must have an immortal soul that carries our a-priori Knowledge from an earlier existence to our current one. We must have an immortal soul that carries our a-priori Knowledge from an earlier existence to our current one. The soul is exposed to reality before entering the body, but that knowledge is blunted/blurred as soul transmigrates into new corruptible bodies. The soul is exposed to reality before entering the body, but that knowledge is blunted/blurred as soul transmigrates into new corruptible bodies. Thus, obtaining knowledge involves rediscover what had been already known. Thus, obtaining knowledge involves rediscover what had been already known. Plato’s belief in immortality and transmigration of the soul shaped much of his philosophical dualism regarding body vs. soul, reality vs appearance, knowledge vs opinion, ideas vs sensible objects. Plato’s belief in immortality and transmigration of the soul shaped much of his philosophical dualism regarding body vs. soul, reality vs appearance, knowledge vs opinion, ideas vs sensible objects.

17 Aristotle (384 – 322 BC) 1.Rational (based on logical necessity) & Naturalistic (Note his hand…) 1.Rational (based on logical necessity) & Naturalistic (Note his hand…) 2.Stressed validity of the senses Recognizes importance of observation preceding deduction Recognizes importance of observation preceding deduction 3.Introduced “categories” 10 characteristics (categories) for identifying, categorizing, and understanding entities: 10 characteristics (categories) for identifying, categorizing, and understanding entities: –substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state, action, and affection 4.“Substance” (i.e., matter) and its independent existence All other characteristics (including Plato’s “Ideas”) exist through a substance (i.e., thro ugh concrete particulars--e.g., beauty through a beautiful object). All other characteristics (including Plato’s “Ideas”) exist through a substance (i.e., thro ugh concrete particulars--e.g., beauty through a beautiful object). 5.Substance (concrete particulars) represent the primary reality. Basis for KNOWLEDGE (in order to understand Idea/Forms, you need to observe concrete particulars) Basis for KNOWLEDGE (in order to understand Idea/Forms, you need to observe concrete particulars) CONCLUSION: Understanding the natural world constitutes valid knowledge, and can be attained through sense perception and observation of particulars.CONCLUSION: Understanding the natural world constitutes valid knowledge, and can be attained through sense perception and observation of particulars. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Plato & Aristotle in Academy of Athens, Raphael, Fresco, Vatican

18 Aristotle (Continued): It is through the ability to reason & to articulate that man translates observations (sense experiences) into useful knowledge.It is through the ability to reason & to articulate that man translates observations (sense experiences) into useful knowledge. To avoid confusion/sophistry/fallcious discourse, reasoning must be logical and follow strict and proper rules.To avoid confusion/sophistry/fallcious discourse, reasoning must be logical and follow strict and proper rules. So, he developed the “science of logic”—the rules of scientific thinking/reasoning known as Aristotelian syllogism:So, he developed the “science of logic”—the rules of scientific thinking/reasoning known as Aristotelian syllogism: –A formal system of logical argumentation based on the premise that every truth followed logically from other truths, and that you could not miss a step by jumping from truth A to truth C. a.Start with self-evident axioms (simple & obviously true statements). b.Combine them using rules of logic to arrive at theorems (proven propositions) which are then used in combination with other axioms and theorems to arrive at new theorems. For example, one simple form of such deductive process consists of two premises (axioms) and a conclusion (theorem): For example, one simple form of such deductive process consists of two premises (axioms) and a conclusion (theorem): (i) Every person is a mortal. (Major Premise) (i) Every person is a mortal. (Major Premise) (ii) Every Greek is a person. (Minor Premise) (iii) Every Greek is mortal. (Conclusion) (iii) Every Greek is mortal. (Conclusion) Centuries later, used as the basis for the development of first the Islamic and, 2-3 centuries later, Christian “Scholastic Theology.” ? ? ?Centuries later, used as the basis for the development of first the Islamic and, 2-3 centuries later, Christian “Scholastic Theology.” ? ? ? History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Aristotle (384-322 BC) Raphael, Fresco, Vatican

19 Scholastic Theology: Using Aristotle’s philosophy and system of logic as a means to develop rational explanations for religious dogma. Before the scholastic movement, early Christianity’s Augustinian theology had been built on the more spiritual Platonic philosophy Before the scholastic movement, early Christianity’s Augustinian theology had been built on the more spiritual Platonic philosophy −Thus, stressed primacy of the supernatural world and, thus, understanding of the spiritual world of perfect, transcendent, divine Platonic “Ideas” (the universals), discounting the knowledge of the natural world. Christianity’s later Aristotelian perspective shifted the epistemological focus to the primacy of the material objects of the natural world (the particulars) and, thus, legitimized pursuit of such secular/worldly knowledge. Christianity’s later Aristotelian perspective shifted the epistemological focus to the primacy of the material objects of the natural world (the particulars) and, thus, legitimized pursuit of such secular/worldly knowledge. How did this transition from the Augustinian-Platonic to the Aristotelian- Scholastic theology come about? A REVIEW OF the HISTORICAL UNDERPININGS…. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

20 Rise of Christianity, Fall of Rome, & The Dawn of Europe’s Dark Ages: Macedonians conquered Greece (338 BC)Macedonians conquered Greece (338 BC) Subsequently, Alexander’s (356-323 BC) conquest of Persian Empire and beyond ushered in the Hellenistic era.Subsequently, Alexander’s (356-323 BC) conquest of Persian Empire and beyond ushered in the Hellenistic era. –The Intellectual center of the world gradually moved to Alexandria, Egypt. –Alexandria’s specialized science/philosophy (e.g., Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy, Galien, Plotinus, …, Hypatia) Romans conquered Greece (264-146 BC).Romans conquered Greece (264-146 BC). Expansion of Christianity: In AD 312, Emperor Constantine Accepted ChristianityAccepted Christianity –End of persecution of Christians. Establishment of the Eastern Empire (Byzantium) with Constantinople as its capital.Establishment of the Eastern Empire (Byzantium) with Constantinople as its capital. The “persecuted” quickly turn into the “persecutors” The “persecuted” quickly turn into the “persecutors” History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

21 AD 395--Christianity the empire’s official religion. AD 395--Christianity the empire’s official religion. 4 th - 5 th cent., Christianity penetrates every aspect of the Roman state. 4 th - 5 th cent., Christianity penetrates every aspect of the Roman state. End of science/philosophy in the West. End of science/philosophy in the West. The Church becomes Roman Empire’s leading institution. The Church becomes Roman Empire’s leading institution. The seed of mixing religion and politics. The seed of mixing religion and politics. The Fall of Rome : Invasions by nomadic barbarians (Germanic tribes) in the 4 th & 5 th centuries Invasions by nomadic barbarians (Germanic tribes) in the 4 th & 5 th centuries Result: Europe breaks apart into kingdoms of various Germanic tribesResult: Europe breaks apart into kingdoms of various Germanic tribes History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

22 Many blamed Christians/Christianity for undermining Rome’s pagan Gods and her Greco-Roman cultural values.Many blamed Christians/Christianity for undermining Rome’s pagan Gods and her Greco-Roman cultural values. St. Augustine’s (358-430) comes to Christianity’s defenseSt. Augustine’s (358-430) comes to Christianity’s defense Theology stresses the “Original Sin”, discounting man’s worth & dignity Theology stresses the “Original Sin”, discounting man’s worth & dignity Converted from Manichaeism Converted from Manichaeism −Manichaeism’s Dualism: Soul being good, and body being evil. Augustine’s dualism of “City of Man” vs “City of God” : Augustine’s dualism of “City of Man” vs “City of God” : –Rome is earthly and materialistic (“City of Man”). So what if it fell? –“City of God” is spiritual & cannot be conquered. –Earthly power and glory in the “City of Man” are nothing compared to the glory of the spiritual and heavenly “City of God.” A call on the Christian Europe to build a Heavenly City on the ashes of fallen of Rome.A call on the Christian Europe to build a Heavenly City on the ashes of fallen of Rome. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

23 Augustine’s theology, found an ally in the Platonic philosophy Augustine’s theology, found an ally in the Platonic philosophy  Primacy of transcendental Forms/Ideas  Inferiority of the sensible material world vs the eternal supernatural world.  Immortality of the soul Also influenced by Plotinus, pagan founder of Neo-Platonism (3 rd century, Alexandria, Egypt) Also influenced by Plotinus, pagan founder of Neo-Platonism (3 rd century, Alexandria, Egypt) Amplified religious/mystic aspects of Plato’s philosophy Amplified religious/mystic aspects of Plato’s philosophy Fused Plato with eastern mysticism (illumination/emanation philosophy). Fused Plato with eastern mysticism (illumination/emanation philosophy). Plato’s highest Form “Good” or “the One” emanated everything from itself, in the order of diminishing completeness/perfection: Plato’s highest Form “Good” or “the One” emanated everything from itself, in the order of diminishing completeness/perfection: −First, created the ”nous” (mind/intelligence). −Next, created the soul. −Then created nature (the world of material objects). −Then endowed nature with life and soul. The soul, being chained to the body (a lower Form), longs to return to its original source. The soul, being chained to the body (a lower Form), longs to return to its original source.  Virtue, meditation, cleansing oneself from bodily desires, and freedom from dependence on material things can help soul ascend to reunite with “the One.” −So, contemplating God must be man’s mission in life. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

24 Augustine’s Epistemology (inspired by Plato’s philosophy): St. Augustine establishes theology as the foundation for epistemology. St. Augustine establishes theology as the foundation for epistemology. Discounting the present life and physical world (i.e., City of Man). Discounting the present life and physical world (i.e., City of Man). His Theory of knowledge: “Have faith in order to understand the truth”His Theory of knowledge: “Have faith in order to understand the truth” Faith and revelation (NOT rational and autonomous human reasoning) became the basis for a new epistemology. Faith and revelation (NOT rational and autonomous human reasoning) became the basis for a new epistemology. The secular rationality of the Greek became irrelevant to salvation. The secular rationality of the Greek became irrelevant to salvation. The natural world (City of Man) held no significance in comparison with the spiritual reality of the City of God The natural world (City of Man) held no significance in comparison with the spiritual reality of the City of God  Natural phenomena were subservient to “divine providence”  No urgency in studying/understanding it. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

25 The defeated Christian Europe saw the allure of the Heavenly City and responded to St. Augustine’s call. The long obsession with God The long obsession with God End of secular/creative thought/activity End of secular/creative thought/activity Western Europe took its 600-year plunge into its Dark Ages. In the Eastern Empire: Emperor Justinian comes to power (6 th century).Emperor Justinian comes to power (6 th century). −Active suppression of other religions −Full marriage of Church & State Philosophy is considered corruptive; libraries are ransacked, book burned, centers of learning closed (e.g., Academy of Athens). Philosophy is considered corruptive; libraries are ransacked, book burned, centers of learning closed (e.g., Academy of Athens). −Migration of many remaining philosophers/intellectuals to the neighboring Persian Empire. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

26 Shortly after... Birth of Islam (613 AD) & Expansion of the Islamic Empire: Quickly expands east and west (632-750) Quickly expands east and west (632-750) Swept away enormous chunks of land including land from: Swept away enormous chunks of land including land from:  Persian Empire (e.g., Iran, Mesopotamia, parts of Turkey, parts of Syria, Azerbaijan, Caucasus, Afghanistan, parts of Pakistan)  Byzantine Empire (e.g., Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa)  Spain, Sicily, and Southern Italy. Arab conquerors were not great fans of philosophy and science.Arab conquerors were not great fans of philosophy and science. With Roman Empire falling to barbarians & Persian Empire to Arabs, philosophy died in most parts of the world (until mid-8 th century).With Roman Empire falling to barbarians & Persian Empire to Arabs, philosophy died in most parts of the world (until mid-8 th century). History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

27 Transition to the “Golden Age of Islam”: A revolt in the mid 8 th Century:A revolt in the mid 8 th Century: –Coming to power of a new ruling clan –New capital: Baghdad (at that time, a part of Persia/Iran) –A Persian bureaucracy replacing the Arab ruling aristocracy. By the end of the century a theologically more tolerant climate conducive to intellectual activities emergesBy the end of the century a theologically more tolerant climate conducive to intellectual activities emerges The new political-theological climate leads to what is known as ”The Golden Age of Islam”:The new political-theological climate leads to what is known as ”The Golden Age of Islam”: The Second Knowledge Explosion History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

28 The Second Knowledge Explosion (Mid 9 th - 13 th century): i.The Golden Age of Islam and Persian Revival: Emergence of a “rational” philosophical- theological movement Emergence of a “rational” philosophical- theological movement Adherence to liberal theological interpretations to justify scientific/philosophical work Adherence to liberal theological interpretations to justify scientific/philosophical work Establishment of House of Science/Philosophy/Wisdom Establishment of House of Science/Philosophy/Wisdom Gathering Books and scholars from all over the world to engage in scientific & philosophical works. Gathering Books and scholars from all over the world to engage in scientific & philosophical works. Translation into Arabic of texts especially from Greek, Persian, Soryani, Indian, and Byzantine civilizations. Translation into Arabic of texts especially from Greek, Persian, Soryani, Indian, and Byzantine civilizations. Rediscovery of Aristotle’s works by Muslim scholars who wrote extensive commentaries on them. Rediscovery of Aristotle’s works by Muslim scholars who wrote extensive commentaries on them. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

29 Results of “Peripatetic” Muslim scholars (e.g., Farabi, Avicenna, Razi, Khwarazmi, Biruni, Khayyam, Averroes, Al-Kindi): Results of “Peripatetic” Muslim scholars (e.g., Farabi, Avicenna, Razi, Khwarazmi, Biruni, Khayyam, Averroes, Al-Kindi): a.Revival of Aristotle’s rational philosophy & his focus on science of nature. b.Development of a rational theology, reconciling faith with reason & giving religious legitimacy for philosophical and scientific work. More importantly, over the next 300-400 years, production of a wealth of new philosophical, scientific, & encyclopedic works in: More importantly, over the next 300-400 years, production of a wealth of new philosophical, scientific, & encyclopedic works in: o logic, mathematics, medicine, pharmacy, chemistry, astronomy, mineralogy, geology, optics, music, politics, and psychology. o e.g., The Book of Healing, The Cannon of Medicine, etc. Let’s see some examples of such contributions… History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

30 Farabi, Abu Nasr (Latin name: Alpharabius) (Iran, 870-950) A rationalist Aristotelian philosopher with over 100 works in philosophy, mathematics, chemistry, physics, cosmology, logic, music theory, psychology, music therapy, political philosophy, and sociology. The first to conduct experiments regarding existence of vacuum. The first to address social psychology in his writings on political philosophy. He “had great influence on science and philosophy for several centuries.” He was widely regarded to be second only to Aristotle in knowledge” (as is implied by his honorific title of "the Second Teacher"). Al-Kindi, Abu Yusef Ishaq (Latin name: Alkindus) (Iraq, 801-873) Philosopher, scientist, physician, astronomer. logician, musician, pharmacologist, psychologist, meteorologist, and cryptologist The first to introduce the Greek and Hellenistic philosophy to the Muslim world. But his work was eventually eclipsed by names such as Farabi and Avicenna. Khwarazmi, Mohammad (Latin name: Algoritmi) (Iran, 780-850) Founder of Algebra, mathematician, astronomer, geographer, & cartographer Developer of the first systematic solution to linear and quadratic equations An early pioneer in spherical trigonometry. Latin translations of his work in the 12 th century introduced the Hindu decimal numeral system to Europe. That was the origin of the current use of Arabic Numerals in the West. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology (Source: George Sarton, History of Science Series, Vol. I-III, 1927-1948)

31 Ibn Sina or Abu Ali Sina (Latin name: Avicenna) (Iran, 980-1037) Describes as “one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history,” A poet and a statesman with 450 treatise on medicine, astronomy, chemistry, geology, psychology, logic, paleontology, mathematics, and physics. The first to: correctly document the anatomy of the human eye (& such eye afflictions as cataracts), discover contagious and sexually transmitted diseases, introduce quarantine, describe symptoms & complications of diabetes, and describe workings of the heart as a valve. The first to introduce experimental medicine, randomized controlled trials, and efficacy tests. Epistemologically, he criticizes the Aristotelian method and, in its place, developed a "method of experimentation” as a means for conducting scientific inquiry. His “The canon of Medicine,” an immense 14-volume encyclopedia of medicine, remained the standard medical text in universities throughout Europe until the end of the 18 th century. Biruni, Abu Rayhan (Latin name: Alberonius) (Iran, 973-1048) Described as “one of the greatest scientists of all times.” Pioneering contributions in philosophy, astronomy, epistemology, physics, mathematics, anthropology, comparative sociology, history, geography, medicine, and psychology. The first anthropologist, founder of indology The first exponents of the experimental method of scientific investigation. Al-Biruni Crater on the moon is named in his honor for his contributions to Astronomy, History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Latin copy of the Canon of Medicine, 1484, P.I. Nixon Medical Historical Library University of Texas Razi, Mohammad Zakariya (Latin name: Rhazes & Rasis) (Iran, 865-925) A secular physician, chemist, and philosopher Credited with numerous “firsts” in medical research and chemistry including: Developing the distillation process (thus the word alcohol) Discovery of numerous compounds (e.g., kerosene, and ethanol) The first to differentiate smallpox from measles, father of pediatrics, and a pioneer in neurosurgery and ophthalmology

32 Averroes/Ibn Rushd (Latin name: Averroes) (Cordoba, Spain, 1120-1198) An Andalusían Muslim polymath and philosopher who has been described by some scholars as the “founding father of secular thought in Western Europe” and "one of the spiritual fathers of Europe," where his school of philosophy, “Averroism,” had a strong influence on Christian philosophers through the 16 th century. Over 20,000 pages of works covering philosophy, logic, jurisprudence, psychology, politics, music theory, astronomy, geography, mathematics, physics, celestial mechanics, and medicine, including a seven-volume medical encyclopedia, known in Latin as “Colliget.” Argued that one cannot suffer from smallpox twice, fully understood the function of the retina, and suggested the existence of Parkinson's disease. The first to define and measure force in mechanics and to introduce into physics the notion that bodies have a inherent resistance to motion, later dubbed 'inertia' by Johannes Kepler. Epistemology: Saw no conflict between religion and philosophy and believed in two kinds of knowledge. First, the knowledge of truth of religion based in faith, that could not be tested. Second. the knowledge that is based in philosophy, which is reserved for an elite few who have the intellectual capacity to understand it. The asteroid "8318 Averroes" was named in his honor. A movie depicting the life and times of Averroes was released in 1998, titled “Destiny.” Khayyam, Omar (Iran, 1048-1131) Recognized as “the author of the most important treatise on algebra before modern times.” The first to derived general geometric method for solving cubic equations and equations of higher order. Measured the length of the solar year as 365.24219858156 days and reformed the solar calendar. His “Jalali” calendar was more accurate (error = 1 day in 5000 years) than the Gregorian calendar developed 500 years later (error = 1 day in 3300 years). Many believe that he may have proposed a heliocentric theory well before Copernicus. Edward FitzGerald (1809–83), made Khayyám the most famous poet of the East in the West through his celebrated translation of Khayyám's quatrains (“Rubaiyat”) Epistemologically, he supported the view that laws of nature explained all phenomena of observed life. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

33 ii.The Demise of Science & Philosophy in the Muslim World: 1.More conservative rulers in Baghdad who supported the agenda of fundamentalist clerics 1.More conservative rulers in Baghdad who supported the agenda of fundamentalist clerics 2.Emergence of an activist traditionalist theological faction who concocted a theology that used Aristotelian deductive logic to confirm orthodox religious dogma and combat secular philosophy. 2.Emergence of an activist traditionalist theological faction who concocted a theology that used Aristotelian deductive logic to confirm orthodox religious dogma and combat secular philosophy. Net Results: Net Results: a.Denying any role for human reason/discretion in interpreting theological edicts b.A complete ban on all secular philosophical/scientific endeavors History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

34 3.By the 10 th century, virtually all philosophical & scientific activity had migrated to Iran (in the east) and Spain (in the west) where it flourished for another 200 years or so. 4.Invasions of both, the Islamic and Byzantine empires by Turkish tribes of Central Asia. Turks conquered Iran and Asia minor, enforcing conservative religious policies. Turks conquered Iran and Asia minor, enforcing conservative religious policies. Influence of “Ghazali,” a brilliant Iranian philosopher (who turned to conservative theology/mysticism). Influence of “Ghazali,” a brilliant Iranian philosopher (who turned to conservative theology/mysticism). 5.Attacks by Mongol (1218) and Tatar (1370) herds Genghiz Khan & Tamerlane Genghiz Khan & Tamerlane History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

35 The Prelude to Europe’s AWAKENING: After Rome’s fall, gradual disappearance of all signs of prosperity and civilization in Western Europe After Rome’s fall, gradual disappearance of all signs of prosperity and civilization in Western Europe Migration of the population out of cities to rural areas. Migration of the population out of cities to rural areas. Growth of monasticism (e.g., Benedictine order) in the 6 th century Growth of monasticism (e.g., Benedictine order) in the 6 th century Key role of monks and monasteries in preservation and reproduction of books and manuscripts from the classical period. Key role of monks and monasteries in preservation and reproduction of books and manuscripts from the classical period. Charlemagne (Charles I, 742-814) united much of Western Europe Charlemagne (Charles I, 742-814) united much of Western Europe Carolingian Renaissance Crowned “Emperor of Rome” by the Pope Crowned “Emperor of Rome” by the Pope The seed of the “Holy Roman Empire” was planted. The seed of the “Holy Roman Empire” was planted. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

36 The Prelude to Europe’s AWAKENING: Protracted competition for political supremacy between future Popes and emperors. Protracted competition for political supremacy between future Popes and emperors. Consolidation of the papal power over the clergy throughout Western Europe by Gregory VII Consolidation of the papal power over the clergy throughout Western Europe by Gregory VII Peaking of the power of Papacy through the end of the 14 th century. Peaking of the power of Papacy through the end of the 14 th century. Subsequent results: Subsequent results: Gradual corruption of the Church officials Gradual corruption of the Church officials Gradual decline in Papacy’s moral authority Gradual decline in Papacy’s moral authority Eruption into the 16 th century Reformation movement and subsequent religious wars Eruption into the 16 th century Reformation movement and subsequent religious wars 17 th century Call for religious toleration 17 th century Call for religious toleration The 18 th century separation of church & state in the U.S. constitution The 18 th century separation of church & state in the U.S. constitution History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

37 EUROPE’S AWAKENING & TURNING POINT--THE NEW MILLENIUM: New hope and optimism: surviving the millennium and the apocalyptic doom’s day prophecy New hope and optimism: surviving the millennium and the apocalyptic doom’s day prophecy Agricultural innovations and economic boom of 11 th century: Agricultural innovations and economic boom of 11 th century: a)Renewed confidence in the capacity of human intelligence b)Surplus agricultural products and trade c)Enormous rise in education among clergy Rise of Gothic Churches Rediscovery & revival of secular Roman Law and its incorporation into canon law The Crusades and exposure to the philosophical work of the Muslim scholars The Crusades and exposure to the philosophical work of the Muslim scholars EMERGENCE OF WESTERN/CHRISTIAN SCHOLASTICISM: Translations of philosophical and scientific works of Muslim scholars and Greek Classics from Arabic to Latin Translations of philosophical and scientific works of Muslim scholars and Greek Classics from Arabic to Latin Spread of above Latin translations in Europe and development of Christianity’s Scholastic Theology. Spread of above Latin translations in Europe and development of Christianity’s Scholastic Theology. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

38 Popularity of Scholasticism & emergence of church-sponsored universities --the spread of learning/literacy to people outside of the church Popularity of Scholasticism & emergence of church-sponsored universities --the spread of learning/literacy to people outside of the church Establishment of Inquisition (1184) to combat many emerging heresies prompted by popularity of/curiosity in religious doctrine. Establishment of Inquisition (1184) to combat many emerging heresies prompted by popularity of/curiosity in religious doctrine. Creation and educational rivalry of the two leading orders of friars (1200s) Creation and educational rivalry of the two leading orders of friars (1200s) The Platonist Franciscans and Aristotelian Dominicans The Platonist Franciscans and Aristotelian Dominicans Western Scholasticism & Schoolmen: A movement to reconcile faith/religion with reason/philosophy. A movement to reconcile faith/religion with reason/philosophy. Began in the 12 th century Began in the 12 th century Peaked with Thomas Aquinas (13 th century). Peaked with Thomas Aquinas (13 th century). PREMISE: Nothing in the revelation is contrary to reason. PREMISE: Nothing in the revelation is contrary to reason. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

39 Early scholasticism (12 th century)—emphasis on the rules of logical discourse and confidence in the power of human intelligence Early scholasticism (12 th century)—emphasis on the rules of logical discourse and confidence in the power of human intelligence Used Aristotelian logic and dialectics/ disputation as the means to develop rational explanations/justification for the teachings of the scripture (used reasoning to defend articles of faith). Used Aristotelian logic and dialectics/ disputation as the means to develop rational explanations/justification for the teachings of the scripture (used reasoning to defend articles of faith). Later, Thomas Aquinas added Aristotle’s naturalistic philosophy (interest in the working of nature) and justified pursuit of worldly knowledge as a means to appreciate God and his creation. Later, Thomas Aquinas added Aristotle’s naturalistic philosophy (interest in the working of nature) and justified pursuit of worldly knowledge as a means to appreciate God and his creation. Thus, instigated a departure from the anti-physical, world-denying, Augustinian-Platonic thinking that had dominated earlier Christian theology. Thus, instigated a departure from the anti-physical, world-denying, Augustinian-Platonic thinking that had dominated earlier Christian theology. St. THOMAS AQUINAS (1224-1274): A Dominican Priest and Christianity’s greatest scholastic theologian St. THOMAS AQUINAS (1224-1274): A Dominican Priest and Christianity’s greatest scholastic theologian Deeply influenced by Muslim philosophy, especially earlier works of two Persian schoolmen Ghazali and Avicenna. Deeply influenced by Muslim philosophy, especially earlier works of two Persian schoolmen Ghazali and Avicenna. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

40 Aquinas “converted” Aristotle to Christianity, and Christianity to Aristotelian values. Aquinas “converted” Aristotle to Christianity, and Christianity to Aristotelian values. OUTCOME: For the next 300 years, Aristotle & the Scripture became the main sources of answer to virtually all questions, worldly and divine. OUTCOME: For the next 300 years, Aristotle & the Scripture became the main sources of answer to virtually all questions, worldly and divine. Thomas Aquinas’ Epistemology: Aquinas, was a philosophical realist for whom sensible things in the world (i.e., Particulars): Aquinas, was a philosophical realist for whom sensible things in the world (i.e., Particulars): Had a substantial reality of their own Had a substantial reality of their own Were NOT unreal shadowy replications of Platonic Ideas. Were NOT unreal shadowy replications of Platonic Ideas. He saw no conflict between the natural and spiritual worlds. He saw no conflict between the natural and spiritual worlds. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

41 He argued... a.Similarly, intelligence is the greatest gift to man from God b.The natural world, having been created by God, is worthy of observation/understanding in its own right c.So, using one’s god-given intellect to study God’s handiwork (natural world) is indeed an honorable human endeavor. d.Thus, faith and knowledge enriched one another Faith is not in opposition to knowledge Faith is not in opposition to knowledge With the above argument, Aquinas provided religious legitimacy for the pursuit of worldly knowledge. With the above argument, Aquinas provided religious legitimacy for the pursuit of worldly knowledge. RESULT: A surge of intellectual activity (1200s-1300s) RESULT: A surge of intellectual activity (1200s-1300s) History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

42 Secularization of Philosophy and Science—14 th Century: Proliferation of scholastic works and irreconcilable conflicts between some philosophical reasons with Christian doctrine. Proliferation of scholastic works and irreconcilable conflicts between some philosophical reasons with Christian doctrine. Two centuries earlier, Averroes (a prominent Muslim philosopher) had proposed a doctrine of ”double-truth universe.” Two centuries earlier, Averroes (a prominent Muslim philosopher) had proposed a doctrine of ”double-truth universe.” That perhaps the realm of reason is outside the sphere of theology (the two are mutually exclusive). That perhaps the realm of reason is outside the sphere of theology (the two are mutually exclusive). Strong appeal and following of Averroism among many 14 th century Christian Scholastics, notably William of Ockham (Occam). Strong appeal and following of Averroism among many 14 th century Christian Scholastics, notably William of Ockham (Occam). A Franciscan friar, and best and most notable scholastics after Aquinas A Franciscan friar, and best and most notable scholastics after Aquinas Best known for a principle called “Occam’s Razor”? Best known for a principle called “Occam’s Razor”? −“Nature loves simplicity.” History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

43 Ockham’s Epistemology & Secularization of Science/philosophy William of Ockham--a philosophical “Nominalist”: Only the “particulars” (concrete individual beings) are real and exist. Only the “particulars” (concrete individual beings) are real and exist. The Platonic “Forms/Universals” are just names/conceptual fictions that exist only in the human mind. The Platonic “Forms/Universals” are just names/conceptual fictions that exist only in the human mind. Plato’s “Cat” (“Catness”) is NOT a distinct real entity. Plato’s “Cat” (“Catness”) is NOT a distinct real entity. Rather, “Cat” (“Catness”) is just a term referring to a shared similarity among many individual cats. Rather, “Cat” (“Catness”) is just a term referring to a shared similarity among many individual cats. Knowledge/science only pertains to sensible things Knowledge/science only pertains to sensible things And, sensible things are individuals (particulars). And, sensible things are individuals (particulars). There are only two ways for acquiring knowledge about this world: There are only two ways for acquiring knowledge about this world: a.Through self-evident logical propositions (like in mathematical) or b.Through sensory observation of concrete particulars. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

44 Ockham stressed: There is no obligatory connections between God’s freely created universe and man’s desire for a perfect rational world. There is no obligatory connections between God’s freely created universe and man’s desire for a perfect rational world. Mixing the two constitutes imposing man’s mental limitations onto God Mixing the two constitutes imposing man’s mental limitations onto God God has absolute freedom to create anything in anyway he pleased. God has absolute freedom to create anything in anyway he pleased. Including imperfect particulars of the natural world Including imperfect particulars of the natural world Man is given two distinct realities, each with its own separate logic: Man is given two distinct realities, each with its own separate logic: The reality of God, given by revelation, and The reality of God, given by revelation, and The reality of the nature/empirical world, as experienced by man. The reality of the nature/empirical world, as experienced by man. Empirical and rational analyses are the right methodologies for understanding the worldly phenomena Empirical and rational analyses are the right methodologies for understanding the worldly phenomena An, this type of understanding constitutes true knowledge An, this type of understanding constitutes true knowledge History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

45 BUT, rational analysis is NOT the right means for drawing conclusions about things beyond the senses (i.e., the supernatural) BUT, rational analysis is NOT the right means for drawing conclusions about things beyond the senses (i.e., the supernatural) These could only be revealed by faith, not by reason. These could only be revealed by faith, not by reason. So, while man’s ability to reason can help him understand nature, faith will remain the only means to understand God & the divine. So, while man’s ability to reason can help him understand nature, faith will remain the only means to understand God & the divine. Thus, Ockham dismissed spirituality as a legitimate motive for pursuing knowledge. Thus, Ockham dismissed spirituality as a legitimate motive for pursuing knowledge. While the work of Aquinas had united faith and reason, Ockham’s work severed that relationship. While the work of Aquinas had united faith and reason, Ockham’s work severed that relationship. He set scholars free to pursue their own secular interests on issues pertaining to this world and to the human experience. He set scholars free to pursue their own secular interests on issues pertaining to this world and to the human experience. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

46 The Trend Toward Expansion of Secularization (Decline of Church Influence): Challenges to Political Power of the Pope Challenges to Political Power of the Pope The Black Plague (1347-1352) The Black Plague (1347-1352) 1)Transition to rag paper 2)Empowerment of people with greater role in religion 3)Weakening of the feudal economic system, emergence of an urban merchant class. The Great Schism (1377-1417) and Decline of Papacy’s Moral Authority: The Great Schism (1377-1417) and Decline of Papacy’s Moral Authority: History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

47 The Broadening of the Secularization Trend: Rebirth of Humanism (1300s)??? Rebirth of Humanism (1300s)??? a.Initially focused on knowledge of the Greco-Roman literary classics Secular writings dealing with the lives of ordinary people Secular writings dealing with the lives of ordinary people b.Later developed into the works of socio-political humanists of the 1500s Reclaiming the dignity of man and his relevance/importance in worldly human affairs Reclaiming the dignity of man and his relevance/importance in worldly human affairs Man, by virtue of his rationality, did not need to be “shepherded” all the time. Man, by virtue of his rationality, did not need to be “shepherded” all the time. No conflict between piety and wanting to grow/develop, live a good life, pursue success, appreciate beauty, live in a just society, etc. No conflict between piety and wanting to grow/develop, live a good life, pursue success, appreciate beauty, live in a just society, etc. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

48 The 1400s: Invention of the printing press Invention of the printing press Fall of Constantinople, Creation of Ottoman Empire, & Migration of Greeks to Western Europe Fall of Constantinople, Creation of Ottoman Empire, & Migration of Greeks to Western Europe “Donation of Constantine” proven a Forgery “Donation of Constantine” proven a Forgery Rise of Nationalism and Modern Nation-States Rise of Nationalism and Modern Nation-States Voyages of Discovery Voyages of Discovery History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

49 The Arrival of Renaissance (Mid 1400s) and Birth of Modernity: A synthesis of the above philosophical, theological, political, social, and economic forces/changes, culminated in: 1. The Italian Renaissance 2. Reformation 3. Scientific Revolution 4. THE Third Knowledge Explosion 1. The Italian Renaissance 2. Reformation 3. Scientific Revolution 4. THE Third Knowledge Explosion The Renaissance started in Italy’s independent city-states The Renaissance started in Italy’s independent city-states What does the word “Renaissance” mean? Why is it called that? Initially about the “rebirth” of the classical culture Initially about the “rebirth” of the classical culture But also became about celebrating the individual. But also became about celebrating the individual. Renaissance embraced and celebrated Humanist values of youth, beauty, success, & wealth. Renaissance embraced and celebrated Humanist values of youth, beauty, success, & wealth. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

50 History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Renaissance Transformed Artistic & Intellectual Expressions: Renaissance quickly became the age of intellectual & artistic creativity. Renaissance quickly became the age of intellectual & artistic creativity. Art & literature began to reflect the fact that Man was once again claiming the center stage in human affairs. Art & literature began to reflect the fact that Man was once again claiming the center stage in human affairs. Pushing religion increasingly into the background. Pushing religion increasingly into the background. Machiavelli put forth a secular political philosophy. Machiavelli put forth a secular political philosophy. Renaissance transformed the Papacy into a virtually secular institution. Renaissance transformed the Papacy into a virtually secular institution. This greatly contributed to a backlash against the Papacy. This greatly contributed to a backlash against the Papacy. Renaissance petered out in Italy, and gradually moves to Europe’s northern states: Renaissance petered out in Italy, and gradually moves to Europe’s northern states: a.Reformation b.Sack of Rome c.Counter-Reformation, Revival of Inquisition, and suppression of free thought.

51 History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Reformation (1517) of Martin Luther (German, 1517), John Calvin (French, 1536 ), & John Knox (Scottish, 1559) Reformation (1517) of Martin Luther (German, 1517), John Calvin (French, 1536 ), & John Knox (Scottish, 1559) What was it about? A revolt against the authority of the Catholic church A revolt against the authority of the Catholic church –Rejection of the infallibility of the Pope –Criticism of the Papacy for its practices (e.g., selling indulgences) Stressing “personal” spirituality” Stressing “personal” spirituality” RESULT: Emergence of a new culture of “spiritual independence/ individualism” in religious discourse, which gradually spilled over into a quest for “self-determination & independence” in intellectual as well as socio- economic-political affairs. RESULT: Emergence of a new culture of “spiritual independence/ individualism” in religious discourse, which gradually spilled over into a quest for “self-determination & independence” in intellectual as well as socio- economic-political affairs. It inspired: It inspired: a.17 th century scientific revolution b.17 th -18 th democratic revolutions (English, American, French) c.17 th 18 th century free-market economic revolution.

52 Epistemologically, Luther was a nominalist. Epistemologically, Luther was a nominalist. −Nominalism: Platonic “Forms” are NOT real entities. They are simply conceptual fictions that are abstracted in the human mind based on empirical observation. −Realm of science only includes observable material objects, i.e., “Particulars”. −Luther, like Ockham, believed in the separation of realm of reason from sphere of faith. –Protestantism became a force favoring secularization of philosophy/science Creation of Independent Country Churches Creation of Independent Country Churches Western Christianity no longer exclusively Catholic Western Christianity no longer exclusively Catholic Monarchs more powerful at the expense of both, the Pope & emperor Monarchs more powerful at the expense of both, the Pope & emperor Catholic/Spanish Counter Reformation: Internal reforms initiated by the Church to stop the spread of Protestantism. Catholic/Spanish Counter Reformation: Internal reforms initiated by the Church to stop the spread of Protestantism. educational work of the Jesuits. educational work of the Jesuits. History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

53 Counter Reformation and Jesuit Education: To educate and create a new Catholic elite, the Society of Jesus (“Jesuits”) was founded in 1534. Counter Reformation and Jesuit Education: To educate and create a new Catholic elite, the Society of Jesus (“Jesuits”) was founded in 1534. Fused the reformed Catholicism with the best of the educational tradition from the Renaissance. Fused the reformed Catholicism with the best of the educational tradition from the Renaissance. Established schools all over Europe. Established schools all over Europe. Exposed students to many works with classical, humanist, liberal, and pluralist viewpoints. Exposed students to many works with classical, humanist, liberal, and pluralist viewpoints. Trained a new generation of notable scientists and thinker (e.g., Galileo, Descartes, Voltaire, and Diderot). Trained a new generation of notable scientists and thinker (e.g., Galileo, Descartes, Voltaire, and Diderot). History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of the Philosophy of Science The Third Knowledge Explosion & The Scientific Revolution: Discoveries in Astronomy kicked off a full-fledged scientific revolution. Discoveries in Astronomy kicked off a full-fledged scientific revolution. Copernicus’ work rejected the complex “Geocentric Universe” of Aristotle & Ptolemy (i.e., Earth being the stationary center of the Universe) Copernicus’ work rejected the complex “Geocentric Universe” of Aristotle & Ptolemy (i.e., Earth being the stationary center of the Universe) And, in its place, proposed a much simpler Heliocentric vision of the universe. And, in its place, proposed a much simpler Heliocentric vision of the universe. NOTE: Copernicus (like Ptolemy) erroneously assumed planets’ orbits to be perfect circles. Kepler’s 3 laws of planetary motion later proved that the orbit of every planet is an ellipse (oval) with the Sun at a focus.

55 Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of the Philosophy of Science Profound implications of the above works? a.Dispelled the Aristotelian notion of infallibility/constancy of the heavens. b.Undermined the “special” status of Man (as the “crown jewel” of creation) and Earth (as center of the universe). c.Disproved Plato’s & Aristotle’s metaphysics attributing movement of living things to their “soul”. And, by extension, attributing the unending circular movement of the planets to an eternal “Unmoved Mover”. And, by extension, attributing the unending circular movement of the planets to an eternal “Unmoved Mover”. d.Realization: Universe had a secular, mechanistic nature and science was an impersonal way of studying the natural world. The Copernican model was corroborated by Galileo & Kepler and, thus, established an indisputable “Heliocentric” vision for the Universe. The Copernican model was corroborated by Galileo & Kepler and, thus, established an indisputable “Heliocentric” vision for the Universe. Their work led, eventually, to Newton’s General Laws of Motion and Gravity and emergence of the modern physics. Their work led, eventually, to Newton’s General Laws of Motion and Gravity and emergence of the modern physics.

56 Shortly after, a full-fledged Scientific Revolution was brought about by 16 th & 17 th century philosophers who:Shortly after, a full-fledged Scientific Revolution was brought about by 16 th & 17 th century philosophers who: a.Believed that nature is profoundly lawful, and its laws are intelligible. b.Believed the causes of natural phenomena are impersonal and physical. a.Called for removing all supernatural forces from explanation of worldly events. c.Called for abandoning the Aristotelian scholastic method. d.Dismissed the value of knowledge derived from faith, authority, and intuition. They advocated the use of the human capacity to think, and to learn from experience, as the chief criteria for distinguishing fact vs fiction, true vs false, reality vs fallacy, right vs wrong, real vs imagined, etc.They advocated the use of the human capacity to think, and to learn from experience, as the chief criteria for distinguishing fact vs fiction, true vs false, reality vs fallacy, right vs wrong, real vs imagined, etc. Descartes (father of modern philosophy) stressed the need to rid the mind of all preconceptions. He declared:Descartes (father of modern philosophy) stressed the need to rid the mind of all preconceptions. He declared: “Everything must be doubted.” “Everything must be doubted.” “accept nothing as true until it was established beyond doubt.” “accept nothing as true until it was established beyond doubt.” The spirit of the new philosophy and epistemology is summed-up in the quote from Descartes: “I think, therefore I am.” The spirit of the new philosophy and epistemology is summed-up in the quote from Descartes: “I think, therefore I am.” Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of Science

57 So, the epistemological journey from St. Augustine t(5 TH century): “Believe and you will understand.” to Descartes (17 th century): “Everything must be doubted.” was a 1200 year philosophical, theological, and political evolution. Two Competing Schools of Thought: 1.Rationalists believed that: Laws connecting fundamental elements of the universe are self-evident. Laws connecting fundamental elements of the universe are self-evident. Man has innate/inborn ideas about etched in his mind before birth. Man has innate/inborn ideas about etched in his mind before birth. So, knowledge is acquired through logical analysis of these innate ideas. So, knowledge is acquired through logical analysis of these innate ideas. Deductively applying basic principles of logic and systematic/rational reasoning, like the axioms of geometry, is the best way to derive knowledge in all scientific disciplines. Deductively applying basic principles of logic and systematic/rational reasoning, like the axioms of geometry, is the best way to derive knowledge in all scientific disciplines. Rene’ Descartes Baruch de Spinoza Gottfried Leibniz (France, 1596-1650) (Netherlands, 1632-1677) (Germany, 1664-1716) Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of Science

Descartes became the first to present a view of the world that was different from the Aristotelian-Christian outlook. Descartes became the first to present a view of the world that was different from the Aristotelian-Christian outlook. The world as an impersonal mechanical machine in perpetual motion following mathematical rules. The world as an impersonal mechanical machine in perpetual motion following mathematical rules. A break with the tradition that saw nature as having motives and feelings of love and hate. A break with the tradition that saw nature as having motives and feelings of love and hate. The Aristotelian deductive method implied that the natural world can only be described in general terms. The Aristotelian deductive method implied that the natural world can only be described in general terms. Nature is too subtle to lend itself to exact description and, thus, its details always elude precise analysis. Nature is too subtle to lend itself to exact description and, thus, its details always elude precise analysis. Descartes saw nature as a mathematical mechanism, which can be described with exact and logical formulas. Descartes saw nature as a mathematical mechanism, which can be described with exact and logical formulas. He advocated breaking problems into pieces and methodically examining them, from the simplest through the most complex. He advocated breaking problems into pieces and methodically examining them, from the simplest through the most complex. Descartes’ rationalism conquered France, but not England, where the scientific outlook was shaped by empiricists like Francis Bacon and John Locke. Descartes’ rationalism conquered France, but not England, where the scientific outlook was shaped by empiricists like Francis Bacon and John Locke. Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of Science

59 2.Empiricists believed that any claims to understanding a phenomenon must be measured against the empirical reality of concrete particulars. Discounted the deductive method. Francis Bacon called it a “dead end”Discounted the deductive method. Francis Bacon called it a “dead end” Galileo stated : “Does Aristotle not declare that what sensible experience shows ought to be preferred over any deductive argument, even one that seems extremely well founded?” Galileo stated : “Does Aristotle not declare that what sensible experience shows ought to be preferred over any deductive argument, even one that seems extremely well founded?” Empiricists called for a new science grounded in inductive principles.Empiricists called for a new science grounded in inductive principles. Uncovering secrets of nature through empirical observation/experimentation and judicious interpretation of the results. Uncovering secrets of nature through empirical observation/experimentation and judicious interpretation of the results. That is, careful examination of shared patterns and regularities (e.g., similarities, differences) in multiple occurrences/observations of a phenomenon That is, careful examination of shared patterns and regularities (e.g., similarities, differences) in multiple occurrences/observations of a phenomenon Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of Science Sir Francis Bacon Galileo Galilei Thomas Hobbes John Locke Sir Isaac Newton David Hume John Stuart Mill (1561-1626) (1564-1642) (1568-1679) (1632-1704) (1643-1727) (1711-1776) (1806-1873)

John Locke rejected the rationalist view that man comes to the world with a priori (inborn) knowledge that he simply has to rediscover. He maintains: The mind arrives at the world stage entirely blank and all knowledge is to be discovered only through experience.He maintains: The mind arrives at the world stage entirely blank and all knowledge is to be discovered only through experience. Traditionally, philosophy was about developing speculative, but very holistic belief systems that presented integrative (all-embracing) explanations for many issues. Locke, on the other hand, called on scientists to seek less ambitious, but empirically-grounded, thus more realistic, explanations that were more relevant in their applications. 60 Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of Science

Thomas Hobbes the first to propose a materialistic theory of causality. In the medieval mind, world was sustained by a perpetual chain of miracles. In the medieval mind, world was sustained by a perpetual chain of miracles. He saw cause-and-effect links as temporal relationships:He saw cause-and-effect links as temporal relationships: Every effect has a material cause, so that effects always “have their necessity in things antecedent.” Every effect has a material cause, so that effects always “have their necessity in things antecedent.” He asserted that effects follow their causes by “inner necessity”He asserted that effects follow their causes by “inner necessity” Their connection is inherent in the nature of the phenomenon and, thus, transcends our experience. Their connection is inherent in the nature of the phenomenon and, thus, transcends our experience. Irrespective of whether we can perceive those connections. Irrespective of whether we can perceive those connections. That is, an effect has to follow its cause by natural necessity (it is in its nature). That is, an effect has to follow its cause by natural necessity (it is in its nature). 61 Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of Science

62 David Hume (18 th Century Scottish Philosopher) Challenged Hobbes’ doctrine of causality. Challenged Hobbes’ doctrine of causality. Asserted: Cause and effect are NOT connected by logical necessityAsserted: Cause and effect are NOT connected by logical necessity –Such connections (as we perceive them) do NOT reflect a necessity in nature. Rather, they are merely expected as a result of our experience and habit.Rather, they are merely expected as a result of our experience and habit. –The sequence from cause A to effect B seems necessary to us only because repetitions of A being followed by B become a familiar pattern to us, so we get used to expecting B to follow when we observe A. –The apparent necessity exist in our minds, not in nature. HIS CONCLUSION: Empirical evidence/knowledge DOES NOT really give us any insight into the real inner workings of nature.HIS CONCLUSION: Empirical evidence/knowledge DOES NOT really give us any insight into the real inner workings of nature. Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of Science

63 Immanuel Kant (18 th Century Idealist German Philosopher) His epistemologically, bridged the gap between Rationalists and Empiricists and, thus, today’s scientific enterprise can be described as ”logico-empirical.”His epistemologically, bridged the gap between Rationalists and Empiricists and, thus, today’s scientific enterprise can be described as ”logico-empirical.” Like Plato, believed in the duality of Noumenal vs Phenomenal world.Like Plato, believed in the duality of Noumenal vs Phenomenal world. There is a reality which is independent of man’s perceptions and is NOT experientially knowable (a “thing-in-itself”). There is a reality which is independent of man’s perceptions and is NOT experientially knowable (a “thing-in-itself”). Implication: it is impossible to have any empirical knowledge of the supernatural world. Implication: it is impossible to have any empirical knowledge of the supernatural world. Like Aristotle, believed that the natural (phenomenal) world is knowable.Like Aristotle, believed that the natural (phenomenal) world is knowable. And, it is knowable through observation/sense perception. And, it is knowable through observation/sense perception. Thus, scientific knowledge pertains only to the natural/perceptible world.Thus, scientific knowledge pertains only to the natural/perceptible world. Events and objects that are in time and space. Events and objects that are in time and space. But, man is NOT simply a passive bystander in receiving impressions from the outside world. But, man is NOT simply a passive bystander in receiving impressions from the outside world. Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of Science

64 Our mind helps give meaning to our observations/experiences. Our mind helps give meaning to our observations/experiences. HOW does it do that? Central to the workings of nature are some rational “inner necessities” to which all empirical observations must conform.Central to the workings of nature are some rational “inner necessities” to which all empirical observations must conform. That is, without which natural phenomena will not work That is, without which natural phenomena will not work −(e.g., mathematical relationships and necessities of time and space such as implausibility of travelling back in time, being in two places at the same time, mutually exclusive propositions, or “being” and “not being” at the same time.) We are born with an innate/a priori rational framework/knowledge that help us:We are born with an innate/a priori rational framework/knowledge that help us: a.Understand the above inner necessities of the natural world, and b.Thus, help us interpret our experiences and give accurate meaning to our empirical knowledge. Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of Science

In short, according to Kant:In short, according to Kant: What is known is, in part, imposed by the knower. What is known is, in part, imposed by the knower. The knower plays an active and creative role in the knowing process (i.e., partly enacts his/her known reality), through operations of the mind. The knower plays an active and creative role in the knowing process (i.e., partly enacts his/her known reality), through operations of the mind. CONCLUSION: Since knowledge results from the interaction between the knower and the known, the rational mind of the knower must be given a role in the process of undertaking scientific investigations. CONCLUSION: Since knowledge results from the interaction between the knower and the known, the rational mind of the knower must be given a role in the process of undertaking scientific investigations. Result of Kant’s influence: Scientific method must be an interactive process that rests on the interplay of both: a.The new inductive empiricism (i.e., observation/experimentation), & b.The old deductive reasoning (i.e., rational analysis/inquiry) In short, if science is to be both realistic & orderly, scientific explanations must be supported by “sound” empirical evidence, but also by rational/reasoned analysis. In short, if science is to be both realistic & orderly, scientific explanations must be supported by “sound” empirical evidence, but also by rational/reasoned analysis. Key characteristics of the modern scientific method: Key characteristics of the modern scientific method: 65 Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of Science

66 CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE  Empiricism Science is NOT a belief system; scientific explanations must be anchored in reality, NOT just in beliefs/intuition/common sense/casual subjective judgment. That is:Science is NOT a belief system; scientific explanations must be anchored in reality, NOT just in beliefs/intuition/common sense/casual subjective judgment. That is: –Propositions must appeal to evidence, and not just to beliefs or even reason. Newton’s “4 th rule of reason in science” states:Newton’s “4 th rule of reason in science” states: –“We are to look upon propositions inferred by general induction from phenomenon as accurately or very true,... till such time as other phenomena occur, by which they may either be made more accurate, or liable to exceptions. John Stuart Mill argues that:John Stuart Mill argues that: –The only grounds that we have for inferring from a sample to a population, or from the past to the future, are given by present experience or memory. Francis Bacon who was an advocate for a worldly utilitarian science argued: Francis Bacon who was an advocate for a worldly utilitarian science argued: –The only knowledge of importance to man is knowledge that is rooted in the natural/physical world (which can be experienced in time and space). –The only knowledge of importance to man is knowledge that is rooted in the natural/physical world (which can be experienced in time and space). o As opposed to the meta-physical/supernatural phenomena that pertain to (are in the realm of) forces beyond this world

67 Empiricism in social/behavioral sciences: Result of pioneering works of: Auguste Comte, the founder of Positivism in social sciences:Auguste Comte, the founder of Positivism in social sciences: Positivists believe that scientific research should NOT be compelled to start with a deductive theory-building process. Positivists believe that scientific research should NOT be compelled to start with a deductive theory-building process. Maintained that the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomenon experienced, and NOT necessarily to justify it. Maintained that the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomenon experienced, and NOT necessarily to justify it. That is, scientific knowledge must receive its positive affirmation from data/evidence and does not have to be rationally justifiable. That is, scientific knowledge must receive its positive affirmation from data/evidence and does not have to be rationally justifiable. Maintained that untestable/unverifiable metaphysical propositions are without meaning; are not scientific. Maintained that untestable/unverifiable metaphysical propositions are without meaning; are not scientific. Sought to apply observation and experimentation to what we today know as sociology. Sought to apply observation and experimentation to what we today know as sociology. Galton developed a mathematical formula for measuring correlations, thereby facilitating empiricism in behavioral/social sciences that do not easily lend themselves to experimentation.Galton developed a mathematical formula for measuring correlations, thereby facilitating empiricism in behavioral/social sciences that do not easily lend themselves to experimentation. Also was the inventor of fingerprinting, & cousin of Charles Darwin. Also was the inventor of fingerprinting, & cousin of Charles Darwin.

68 Propositions must be testable/verifiable against observed evidence.Propositions must be testable/verifiable against observed evidence. Science is not a belief system; it seeks objective knowledge about natural phenomena (i.e., phenomena that are observable/ testable in space and time.) Science is not a belief system; it seeks objective knowledge about natural phenomena (i.e., phenomena that are observable/ testable in space and time.) As such: If NOT testable, then NOT scientific As such: If NOT testable, then NOT scientific Speculative propositions/explanations that delve into the supernatural (issues beyond this world) have no place in science. Speculative propositions/explanations that delve into the supernatural (issues beyond this world) have no place in science. They are metaphysical speculations about abstract supernatural ideas that cannot be measured, quantified, tested, confirmed/disconfirmed by observation. They are metaphysical speculations about abstract supernatural ideas that cannot be measured, quantified, tested, confirmed/disconfirmed by observation. Therefore, they remain in the realm of pure thought. Therefore, they remain in the realm of pure thought. CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE  Testability

69 CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE  Rigor & Regulated Methodology It is NOT a belief system. It is a deliberate and disciplined intellectual process based on carefully planned observations, that is:It is NOT a belief system. It is a deliberate and disciplined intellectual process based on carefully planned observations, that is: What is observed, how many times, and how are all carefully decided. What is observed, how many times, and how are all carefully decided. Quantification of variables, precise measurement using instruments/procedures that enhance the range of one’s senses, mathematical/statistical analysis methods, and use of probability theory in inferences are all aimed at providing clarity/precision and minimizing vagueness.Quantification of variables, precise measurement using instruments/procedures that enhance the range of one’s senses, mathematical/statistical analysis methods, and use of probability theory in inferences are all aimed at providing clarity/precision and minimizing vagueness.  Precise Language/Rhetoric People understand words in slightly different ways. This can lead to distortions and flaws in knowledge.People understand words in slightly different ways. This can lead to distortions and flaws in knowledge. Thus, scientists prefer to communicate in an exact and universal language, such as mathematics/statistics.Thus, scientists prefer to communicate in an exact and universal language, such as mathematics/statistics. The standard of writing scientific works in clear/simple and straightforward language was also established by the founding members of the Royal Society shortly after it was officially established in 1660. The standard of writing scientific works in clear/simple and straightforward language was also established by the founding members of the Royal Society shortly after it was officially established in 1660.

70 CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE  Assumption of Determinism 3 different perspectives on (ways of looking at) the natural world we live in and our relationship with it: 3 different perspectives on (ways of looking at) the natural world we live in and our relationship with it: 1.The Ancient Outlook: Things in nature appeared to happen purely by accident and, thus, were seen as mysterious, magical, astonishing, and even frightening. 2.The Medieval/Religious Outlook: Things that happen around us may be mysterious and unexplainable to us, but they are the workings of a rational, wise, just, and all-knowing supreme being. In this view, things are often preordained/destined to happen for reasons maybe unknown to us, but clearly justifiable in God’s infinite wisdom. CONCLUSIONS and resulting mindset from both above: 1.Since things that happen to us are unknowable, unexplainable, unpredictable, inevitable, and unavoidable, they are, therefore, UNCOTROLLABLE and UNMANAGEABLE. UNCOTROLLABLE and UNMANAGEABLE. 2.And, since things happen for “good” reasons, we are NOT in the position to question them or “thinker” with them (“meddle in God’s affairs”).

71 CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE 3.Modern/Scientific Outlook (A Deterministic Perspective): There is order in nature and the world around us does NOT operate randomly/accidentally. Baruch Spinoza: “Everything that happens occurs through the operation of NECESSITY,”? Everything must necessarily happen the way that it does. Everything must necessarily happen the way that it does. Every object/phenomenon has explainable causes inherent in the nature of that object/phenomenon. Every object/phenomenon has explainable causes inherent in the nature of that object/phenomenon. Nature is lawful and all phenomenon is governed by logical and intelligible LAWS OF NATURE. Nature is lawful and all phenomenon is governed by logical and intelligible LAWS OF NATURE. Human intellect and judgment is capable of discovering nature’s order. Human intellect and judgment is capable of discovering nature’s order. CONCLUSION: We are not at the mercy of nature. By discovering the laws of nature, we find mastery over our world and control over our destiny. By discovering the laws of nature, we find mastery over our world and control over our destiny. As Francis Bacon stated: The universe must be viewed as a problem to be solved, “rather than as an eternally fixed stage, upon which man walked”.

72 Scientific Determinism is NOT exact, but statistical/probabilistic. As John Locke maintains: Scientific Determinism is NOT exact, but statistical/probabilistic. As John Locke maintains: It is often NOT possible to establish knowledge/truth with absolute certainty. It is often NOT possible to establish knowledge/truth with absolute certainty. Thus, truth is a function of the strength of the supporting reason/evidence. Thus, truth is a function of the strength of the supporting reason/evidence. Therefore, the “degree of assent” that we give to a proposition should depend on the grounds of probability in its favor. Therefore, the “degree of assent” that we give to a proposition should depend on the grounds of probability in its favor. CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE

73  Tentativeness Unlike religion, science is not a belief system.Unlike religion, science is not a belief system. Science does NOT subscribe to certitude and absolutism.Science does NOT subscribe to certitude and absolutism. Scientific findings are NOT to be considered final/complete. Scientific findings are NOT to be considered final/complete. Human knowledge is relative and fallible; must be constantly revised in light of new evidence. Human knowledge is relative and fallible; must be constantly revised in light of new evidence. Kant had stressed the mind’s active role in giving meaning to human experiences/observations.Kant had stressed the mind’s active role in giving meaning to human experiences/observations. Karl Popper took the argument to its logical conclusion:Karl Popper took the argument to its logical conclusion: Science CANNOT produce knowledge that is certain or absolute. Science CANNOT produce knowledge that is certain or absolute. Corroborating data CANNOT confirm a theory since there may always be other plausible explanations that trump the current theory. –Popper –Popper states: “Corroboration gives only the comfort that the theory has been tested and survived the test, that even after the most impressive corroborations of predictions, it has only achieved the status of not yet disconfirmed.“ –In other words, "not proven false" is not the same as "being true.“ CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE

74 Popper, therefore, maintains that: "The only process available for establishing a scientific theory is one of eliminating plausible rival hypotheses.“ As such, scientific enterprise should be...:As such, scientific enterprise should be...:... a continuous attempt to falsify prevailing theories.... a continuous attempt to falsify prevailing theories. By ruling out competing plausible explanations, one continues to learn more about a subject and get increasingly closer to the truth.By ruling out competing plausible explanations, one continues to learn more about a subject and get increasingly closer to the truth. Thus, even undisputable explanations, those highly corroborated by empirical evidence (e.g., Gravity Theory, Theory of Evolution, etc.), are still referred to as a “THEORY”.Thus, even undisputable explanations, those highly corroborated by empirical evidence (e.g., Gravity Theory, Theory of Evolution, etc.), are still referred to as a “THEORY”. CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE

75 Investigations must start WITHOUT any pre-suppositions /belief regarding the truth/falsity of the proposition/explanation. Propositions must not only have the potential to be verified, but also the potential to be falsified/refuted. Propositions must not only have the potential to be verified, but also the potential to be falsified/refuted. Science is an honest attempt to seek answers that we don’t have. Science is an honest attempt to seek answers that we don’t have. In science, it is the evidence that is supposed to lead us to our conclusions, whatever those conclusions may be. In science, it is the evidence that is supposed to lead us to our conclusions, whatever those conclusions may be. Ideologically-charged propositions/assumptions pursue questions for which answers are already given/assumed. Ideologically-charged propositions/assumptions pursue questions for which answers are already given/assumed. Dogmatic ideologies don’t tolerate rejection of their assumptions/beliefs. Dogmatic ideologies don’t tolerate rejection of their assumptions/beliefs. Thus, whenever we believe answers/explanations are: Thus, whenever we believe answers/explanations are: a.known (i.e., complete and final vs tentative), and/or b.externally fixed (i.e., are absolute and not refutable), the question being considered will NOT be a scientific one. the question being considered will NOT be a scientific one. Example: Intelligent Design/Creationism vs. Evolution Example: Intelligent Design/Creationism vs. Evolution In Short: If NOT testable, tentative, or refutable, then NOT scientific CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE  Falsifiability

76 CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE  Parsimony Is based on the notion that the elegance, beauty, and harmony of nature emanates from its simplicity.Is based on the notion that the elegance, beauty, and harmony of nature emanates from its simplicity. This principle was originally expressed by William of Ockham and, thus, is known as the “Occam’s/Ockham’s Razor.” It stated: “What can be done with fewer is done in vain with more.”This principle was originally expressed by William of Ockham and, thus, is known as the “Occam’s/Ockham’s Razor.” It stated: “What can be done with fewer is done in vain with more.” Copernicus applied the principle in proposing his heliocentric model of universe.Copernicus applied the principle in proposing his heliocentric model of universe. Kepler repeatedly writes: “Nature loves simplicity.” Kepler repeatedly writes: “Nature loves simplicity.” Newton’s single law of gravitation holding each planet to the sun represents this simplicity. Newton’s single law of gravitation holding each planet to the sun represents this simplicity. Newton’s “first rule of reasoning in Science” is a restatement of Occam’s Razor:Newton’s “first rule of reasoning in Science” is a restatement of Occam’s Razor: “Nature does nothing in vain, and more is in vain when less will serve; for nature is pleased with simplicity, and affects not the pomp of superfluous causes.” “Nature does nothing in vain, and more is in vain when less will serve; for nature is pleased with simplicity, and affects not the pomp of superfluous causes.” Therefore, theories and explanations of natural phenomena should not be made more complicated than necessary (frugality/succinctness). Therefore, theories and explanations of natural phenomena should not be made more complicated than necessary (frugality/succinctness). This means, what is superfluous and unnecessary in the intellectual judgment of the scientist should be cut away.This means, what is superfluous and unnecessary in the intellectual judgment of the scientist should be cut away. That is, if you have two competing theories for explaining the observed facts, the simplest one (i.e., the one with fewer assumptions) should be used until more evidence comes along. That is, if you have two competing theories for explaining the observed facts, the simplest one (i.e., the one with fewer assumptions) should be used until more evidence comes along.

77 CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE NOTE: Method of science is often (especially in more mature stage of a fields) based on the Nomothetic (rather than Idiographic)method of explaining phenomena. Idiographic ResearchIdiographic Research Is concerned with examining and identifying many unique considerations that lie behind a particular phenomenon/ event/action (e.g., case studies, archival studies, historical research). Nomothetic ResearchNomothetic Research Is aimed at discovering the relatively few, but very important, considerations that explain a general class of events/actions.

78 CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE  Generalizability As Newton’s 2 nd rule of reason in science asserts: “To the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes. “As to respiration in a man and in a beast, the descent of stones in Europe and in America….” As Newton’s 2 nd rule of reason in science asserts: “To the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes. “As to respiration in a man and in a beast, the descent of stones in Europe and in America….”  Built-in Self-Correcting Mechanisms—Checks and balances that provide an objective and fair playing field. Public scrutiny: Public dissemination of scientific works and their independent review by other scientists is a 17 th century invention. Public scrutiny: Public dissemination of scientific works and their independent review by other scientists is a 17 th century invention. It was initiated by the founding members of the British Royal Society. It was initiated by the founding members of the British Royal Society. Replications: Ro be considered valid, scientific findings must be reproducible/confirmable under similar conditions by other scientists. Replications: Ro be considered valid, scientific findings must be reproducible/confirmable under similar conditions by other scientists. This is why replications are encouraged. This is why replications are encouraged. And, this is why researchers are required to clearly, and in details, articulate all their procedures. And, this is why researchers are required to clearly, and in details, articulate all their procedures.

79  To Describe: Specifying what makes a phenomenon occur and how. What are the factors contributing to its occurrence, and how?)  To Explain: Why? What are the reasons? What are the underlying logic and dynamics?  To Predict: What is the likelihood of the phenomenon occurring under a given condition? Under what conditions is a phenomenon likely to occur?) SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE:? ? ? “Scientific” knowledge is our tentative and falsifiable explanations about natural phenomena developed on the basis of careful logical analysis and objective examination of publically reviewable observational evidence. FUNCTIONS/OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE: ? ? ?

80 It is estimated that it took 12,000 years until the beginning of the century industrial revolution, for world’s per capita GDP (in 1990 fixed dollars) to double. It is estimated that it took 12,000 years until the beginning of the century industrial revolution, for world’s per capita GDP (in 1990 fixed dollars) to double. By contrast, in only the 250 years between the industrial revolution and year 2000, per capita GDP rose more than 36 folds. By contrast, in only the 250 years between the industrial revolution and year 2000, per capita GDP rose more than 36 folds. Despite the worldwide population explosion from 720 millions in 1750, to 6.3 billions in 2000. Despite the worldwide population explosion from 720 millions in 1750, to 6.3 billions in 2000. But, it is fair to ask if this material prosperity been achieved at the expense of a diminishing quality of life? Did the Medieval life involve greater richness, spirituality, higher general happiness, or a higher sense of subjective wellbeing? The answer is an emphatic NO; all the evidence points to the contrary... The answer is an emphatic NO; all the evidence points to the contrary... What has been the contributions of this new science to our prosperity and socio-economic and technological progress?

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1. 2 College of Business Research Director and Prof. of Mgt. & Quant. MethodsCollege of Business Research Director and Prof. of Mgt. & Quant. Methods.

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