2. Remote Sensing Space-based Earth exploration and planetary exploration began with the International Geophysical Year (IGY) which was also the beginning of the space race (1957) IGY was an 18-month international scientific research project that spanned 1957-1958 Research included Earth sciences: aurora and airglow, cosmic rays, geomagnetism, gravity, ionospheric physics, longitude and latitude determinations (precision mapping), meteorology, oceanography, seismology and solar activity Research included Earth sciences: aurora and airglow, cosmic rays, geomagnetism, gravity, ionospheric physics, longitude and latitude determinations (precision mapping), meteorology, oceanography, seismology and solar activity

3. Remote Sensing Instruments for the early Explorer program were improved and modified for lunar and planetary exploration in the Pioneer (lunar) and Mariner (Venus, Mars) missions Instruments for the early Explorer program were improved and modified for lunar and planetary exploration in the Pioneer (lunar) and Mariner (Venus, Mars) missions Explorer 1 was America’s first satellite Explorer 1 was America’s first satellite Continued through Explorer 78 Continued through Explorer 78 Launched in 2000 Launched in 2000

4. Remote Sensing Remote sensing is traditionally used for Earth observation, but also applies to planetary exploration Remote sensing is traditionally used for Earth observation, but also applies to planetary exploration The same or similar or instruments used for both The same or similar or instruments used for both Measurements at a distance use electromagnetic (EM) sensors Measurements at a distance use electromagnetic (EM) sensors Radio, microwave Radio, microwave IR IR Visible Visible UV UV

5. Remote Sensing Sampling (in situ) measurements Sampling (in situ) measurements Generally for accurate measurements of composition and abundance Generally for accurate measurements of composition and abundance Include: Include: Mass spectrometers Mass spectrometers Atmospheric particle detectors Atmospheric particle detectors Surface analysis Surface analysis Particle and EM radiation detectors Particle and EM radiation detectors

6. Remote Sensing Sampling (in situ) measurements on Earth can be relatively inexpensive Sampling (in situ) measurements on Earth can be relatively inexpensive In situ measurements on planets/moons are the most expensive space exploration projects In situ measurements on planets/moons are the most expensive space exploration projects Earth observation Ground-based Ground-based Airborne Airborne Space-based Space-based

7. Remote Sensing Atmosphere is an important element in Earth observation 1. Direct atmospheric studies Complex circulation effects climates in many ways Complex circulation effects climates in many ways Changes in circulation important Changes in circulation important 2. Atmospheric interaction includes: Absorption Absorption Emission Emission Chemical interactions Chemical interactions Water (liquid and vapor) Water (liquid and vapor)

8. Remote Sensing Atmospheric absorption spectra Mostly due to H 2 O, O 2, CO 2

9. Remote Sensing Space-based observations EM radiation sensors include: Imaging data Imaging data Spectral data Spectral data Spectral imaging data Spectral imaging data Color television is an example of sequential spectral (color) images Color television is an example of sequential spectral (color) images

10. Remote Sensing Spectral data example (Chandra X-ray Telescope data)

11. Remote Sensing Spectral image data mosaic

12. Remote Sensing Spectral image data of aurora

14. Remote Sensing – Spectral Bands

15. Radio band Various definitions of frequency range Various definitions of frequency range 0 - 300 MHz (1 MHz = 10 6 Hz) 0 - 300 MHz (1 MHz = 10 6 Hz) 0 - 1 GHz (1GHz = 10 9 Hz) 0 - 1 GHz (1GHz = 10 9 Hz) Lowest EM frequencies Lowest EM frequencies Often used for upper-atmosphere and ion/electron measurements Often used for upper-atmosphere and ion/electron measurements

16. Remote Sensing – Spectral Bands Microwave band 300 MHz - 300 GHz Used for: Surface feature identification Atmospheric layer measurements Radio astronomy Synthetic aperture (imaging) radar

17. Remote Sensing – Spectral Bands Infrared band 300 GHz - 400,000 GHz (400 THz) 1 THz = 1 Tera Hertz = 10 12 Hz = 1,000 GHz Used for: Surface feature identification Atmospheric layers and thunderstorm activity Atmospheric energy exchange Energy absorption or emission in atmosphere Vegetation characteristics Planetary heat flow Stellar and galactic activity

18. Remote Sensing – Spectral Bands Visible band 4x10 14 Hz - 8x10 14 Hz (400 THz - 800 THz) Used for: Surface feature identification Clouds & precipitation Vegetation layers Ocean surfaces Mineral identification

19. Remote Sensing – Spectral Bands UV band 7.5x10 14 Hz - 3x10 16 Hz Used for: Upper atmosphere measurements Solar emissions Stellar characteristics including star birth and star death Galaxy characteristics

20. Remote Sensing – Spectral Bands X-ray band 10 16 - 10 19 Hz Used for: Planetary surface composition from radioisotope emission spectra Stellar activity (primarily for stars, including our sun, and galaxies) Excited (hot) gas in the solar system, surrounding stars, in galaxies, and between galaxies

21. Remote Sensing – Spectral Bands Gamma-ray band 10 19 Hz and higher (no defined maximum) Used for: Planetary surface composition from radioisotope emission spectra Used to identify energetic stars and galaxies Supernova detection Neutron star formation

23. Applications Agriculture Crop type classification Crop condition assessment Crop yield estimation Mapping of soil characteristics Mapping of soil management practices Compliance monitoring (farming practices)

24. Applications Forestry Forest mapping Clear-cut mapping Forest inventory Deforestation evaluation Watershed evaluation Coastal forest protection

25. Applications Geology Bedrock mapping Surface deposit mapping Surface deformation & changes Sedimentary mapping Structural mapping Mantle & crust motion Volcanic evolution Event mapping Mineral exploration Hydrocarbon exploration Environmental geology Geo-hazard mapping Planetary mapping

26. Applications Ice Pack & Hydrology Wetlands mapping & monitoring Soil moisture estimation Snow pack evaluation River & lake ice Flood mapping & monitoring Glacier dynamics River delta changes Irrigation evaluation & monitoring

27. Applications Environmental planning Atmosphere Oceans Public health Coastal changes Industrialization Forests Rivers, lakes & estuaries

28. Applications Disaster Planning & Evaluation Floods Tornadoes Hurricanes/cyclones Fires Earthquakes Droughts

29. Applications Weather Forecasting Adverse weather planning Aviation & marine weather Global atmosphere Sun-Earth interactions

30. Applications Planetary Observations Surface characteristics Geology Composition Activity Atmosphere Environment Solar interactions