1. Did American trade provide an alternative to the exploitation of imperial trade in the nineteenth and twentieth century? Umar Nawab

2. Early development of American trade with Africa Trade with Africa existed alongside slavery. Rum, brandy and tobacco were exchanged for African products. Traders and whalers from Salem had dominance in East African trade from 1832-1834, twenty-two vessels from America entered the ports, only nine from European nations. 1853 was the golden era of whalers, this ended in 1870s.

3. American merchants After the revolutionary war trade picked up as merchants searched for new markets. The establishment of Sierra Leone began legitimate trade. Napoleonic wars increased U.S trade with Africa. The commercial agreement with Sultan of Zanzibar undermined British commercial monopoly.

4. Colonial powers attempt to restrict American trade American trade was restricted which brought a decline in 1862. U.S had no colonial claims in the disputed areas and therefore overall commercial interests were jeopardised. Frederick Lugard Nigeria’s governor general stated that ‘‘foreign competition was almost essential to preserve a healthy trade and secure to the producer a reasonable value for his produce’’.

5. Free trade undermines British dominance Governor MacCarthy reported in 1822 that American trade with the Gold coast was 1/3 equivalent to Britain. With the introduction of free trade principles by 1849 American trade picked up heavily in West Africa. The U.S government did not support annexation of land.

6. American trade provides alternatives to imperialism The establishment of consulate in Freetown Sierra Leone promoted commercial trade. Trade from 1860-65 was substantial, it accounted for 25% of Sierra Leone’s foreign trade. Disgruntled British merchants formed a new group called British Export and Import Association (BEIA), this helped American interests in Sierra Leone.

7. America and Imperial trade similarities The trade in Zanzibar was a monopolised by traders of Salem. John Taylor a commercial agent was willing to use force if necessary to expand U.S commercial interests. British Cotton Growing Association with America supported the cultivation of American ‘Allen’ cotton to help Britain’s colonial exports.

8. American trade with Africa remained relatively small African commerce was a small part of U.S commerce as a whole it accounted for only 1% from 1840-1870. In 1921, U.S exports and imports to Nigeria were only valued at 7.41% total of Nigerian trade. The British dominated shipping with Nigeria during the 1920s. British tonnage landed in 1925 was 355, 242.

9. Conclusion Majority of the trade between America and Africa was through whalers and merchants in the nineteenth century. America undercut British dominance through legal and illegal trade. Trade was largely restricted due to imperial powers who were able to dictate tariff and customs. The U.S government was determined to see that the policy of free trade was adhered to by the colonial powers.