Medieval India.

Medieval India

Medieval Indian Dynasties
Gupta Era: ce Huna Invasion: ce Kushan Era: 5th -7th c. ce Hindu Dynasties: 3rd-15th c. ce Rajputs: Western India 7th -12th c. ce Muslim Invasions: 7th-11th c. ce Delhi Sultanate: Northern India 12th-16th c Mongols under Tamerlane sack Delhi Vasco da Gama reaches India: 1498 Mughal Empire:

Hinduism Sanatana Dharma “The Everlasting Way”
Hinduism is also known as "Sanatana Dharma" to Hindus. In Sanskrit, the original language of India, 'Sanatana' means Everlasting and 'Dharma', by a crude translation, means Religion. The Everlasting Religion, Hinduism was founded, exists and flourishes in India. At this point, let me make a very important observation. Hinduism is probably known to most people outside India as a religion. The truth is - it is both a religion and a way of life. India gave to the world the original, oldest and most profound philosophy of life. The brilliant ancestors of present-day indians explored the truth behind our existence and defined multiple philosophies and theories that explained this truth. However, they also created a set of rules for "good living" on this earth. The philosophical concepts that Indians gave to mankind are eternal and constitute no religion by themselves. However, the rules for good or "Dharmic" living that they laid down constitute the Hindu religion. Most people mistake the term "Hinduism" to be only a religion. This article will refer to "Hinduism" for both the philosophy and the religion, for purposes of simplicity. The message of Sanatana dharma (Hinduism) is perennial and will never become outdated with time. The religion does not have a starting point in history and the sages who shaped it merely reiterated the teachings of the Vedas, which are the Hindu scriptures. The Vedas are believed to have no origin. In ancient India, the Vedas formed the educational system and broadly comprised all the different spheres of life, such as spiritual, science, biology, mathematics and so on.

OM that which hath no beginning or end
The symbol at the top is an Alphabet in the Sanskrit language and is the most important symbol in the Hindu religion. In a sense, it could be equated to the Cross of the Christians and the Crescent of the Moslems. It is pronounced - OM - and signifies God Almighty. Om means "That which hath No Beginning nor End". The chanting of Om and meditation on the symbol are believed to bring health, prosperity, and longevity to the spiritual aspirant. OM that which hath no beginning or end

Hinduism: all-embracing structure of thought
All creation linked in huge web of being Transmigration of souls through various life forms Proper behavior linked to purgation and renewal Dharma: the duty of the believer

Monotheism God is Infinite.
The Infinite manifests in billions of ways. Hinduism believes not only in One God, but also in His Supreme Personality. This personality is manifested in different forms around us and within us perpetually. Therefore, the Infinite manifests in billions of ways to help mankind visualize the Divine Being. This belief of Hinduism is often confused with polytheism. That the Supreme can be worshipped in any form is a unique concept in Hinduism. Hinduism recognizes multiple forms of the one God. Truth Sruti, the unwritten portion of the Vedas tells us this about the Almighty - "OM Poornamadah Poornamidam Poornaad Poornamudachyate; Poornasya Poornamaadaaya Poornamevaavashisyate". Translated, this verse means "What is Whole - This is Whole - What has come out of the Whole is also Whole; When the Whole is taken out of the Whole, the Whole still remains Whole". The purport is that the Infinite cannot be measured arithmetically - God is Infinite. However, although you cannot divide or subtract from the Infinite, you can definitely represent the Infinite in different ways. The Infinite also manifests in billions of ways. The truth is - Hinduism is monotheistic (Believes in One God). However, Hinduism believes not only in One God, but also in His Supreme Personality. This personality of the Supreme Being is manifested in different forms around us and within us perpetually. To meditate on the Supreme Being, man would have to absorb all these infinite manifestations (which are continually taking place without a starting point or an end) with his finite or limited capabilities. Clearly, this is not possible. Therefore, the Infinite manifests Himself in billions of ways to help mankind visualize him. This belief of Hinduism is often confused with polytheism. To illustrate this point - We all observe the unending processes of birth, existence and death, which seem to be continually taking place around us. We constantly witness these processes and are yet ignorant of them, living as we do in the comfort of our illusory lives. The seers of ancient Hinduism realized the truth behind these activities. They gave form and shape to the truth beginning with the Hindu Trinity - Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Brahma creates, Vishnu sustains, and Shiva destroys or consumates everything in the universe. That the Supreme can be worshipped in any form is a unique concept in Hinduism. It should be clear from the above that Hinduism worships multiple forms of the one God. Such worship is truly a tribute to His greatness.

Hindu Concept of Time The transcendence of time is the aim of every Indian spiritual tradition. Time is often presented as an eternal wheel that binds the soul to a mortal existence of ignorance and suffering. "Release" from time's fateful wheel is termed moksha. Hindus believe that the universe is without a beginning or an end . The universe is projected in cycles. Each cycle is divided into four yugas (ages of the world). The transcendence of time is the aim of every Indian spiritual tradition. Time is often presented as an eternal wheel that binds the soul to a mortal existence of ignorance and suffering. "Release" from time's fateful wheel is termed moksha, and an advanced ascetic may be called kala-attita (' he who has transcended time'). Hindus believe that the universe is without a beginning (anadi= beginning-less) or an end (ananta = end-less). Rather the universe is projected in cycles. Each cycle is divided into four yugas (ages of the world). Satya yuga(golden age)4,000,000 yearsTreta yuga(silver age)3,600,000 yearsDvapara yuga(copper age)2,400,000 yearsKali yuga(iron age)1,200,000 yearsPralaya (cosmic deluge )4000,000 yearsNew Creation400,000 yearsDuration of One Cycle12,000,000 years Total duration of the four yugas is called a kalpa. At the end of kalyuga the universe is dissolved by pralaya (cosmic deluge ) and another cycle begins. Each cycle of creation lasts one kalpa, that is 12,000,000 human years ( or 12,000 Brahma years). Time in Hindu mythology is conceived as a wheel turning through vast cycles of creation and destruction (pralaya), known as kalpa. Shiva dancing

BRAHMAN: Universal Power ATMAN: Individual Manifestation of the Universal Spirit
Brahman is the indescribable, inexhaustible, omniscient, omnipresent, original, first, eternal and absolute principle who is without a beginning, without an end , who is hidden in all and who is the cause, source, material and effect of all creation known, unknown and yet to happen in the entire universe. Brahman is the central theme of almost all the Upanishads. Brahman is the indescribable, inexhaustible, omniscient, omnipresent, original, first, eternal and absolute principle who is without a beginning, without an end , who is hidden in all and who is the cause, source, material and effect of all creation known, unknown and yet to happen in the entire universe. He is the incomprehensible, unapproachable radiant being whom the ordinary senses and ordinary intellect cannot fathom grasp or able to describe even with partial success. He is the mysterious Being totally out of the reach of all sensory activity, rationale effort and mere intellectual, decorative and pompous endeavor. Atman, "Universal Spirit," and Brahman

Major Hindu Manifestations
BRAHMAN: divine source of all being Brahma/Sarasvati, the creator Vishnu/Lakshmi, the preserver: benevolence, forgiveness, love Shiva/Kali, the destroyer: disease, death, the dance Ganesha, god of wisdom, writing, elephant-headed

Brahma The Creator His 4 heads represent the four Yugas or cycles of time in Hinduism. At the end of these cycles of time the Universe is ripe for destruction and must be created again. The God Shiva will then destroy the universe so that it can be created again. The Lord has in his four hands a water-pot (kamandalu), a manuscript (Vedas), a sacrificial implement (sruva) and a rosary (mala). Brahma is the son of the Supreme Being. According to the myths, Brahma originally possessed only one head. He acquired the other heads when creating woman (Eve created out of Adam's rib). His love for her caused him to follow her wherever she moved, causing the heads to grow facing each direction. When she rose into the sky in despair, a fifth head grew. It was when the God Brahma joined her, that the human race was created. For this Shiva punished Brahma by cutting off his 5th head. Having completed his task of creator, Brahma has now become the lesser God. Symbols of Brahma: Four headed face, lotus flower, a sceptre, a spoon, a row of beads and a bowl or container filled with holy water. Lord Brahma is the first member of the Brahmanical triad, Vishnu being the second and Shiva, the third. Brahma is the god of creation and he is traditionally accepted as the Creator of the entire universe. An individual's subtle body is constituted of his mind and intellect, that is, his entire thoughts. Man's subtle body is responsible for the creation of his gross body and also the world that he experiences. The thoughts of an individual determine the type of physical body he possesses. The same thoughts are also responsible for the type of world that the individual experiences around him. As the thoughts, so the world. If a man possesses good thoughts he sees a good world. If his thoughts are bad he sees a bad world. Yudhisthira, a virtuous man saw virtue everywhere, while Duryodhana saw vice everywhere. When thoughts are absent there is no world at all. In deep sleep there are no thoughts, no world. This phenomenon is true not only of the microcosm but of the macrocosm as well. The cosmic subtle body is the aggregate of all subtle bodies of all living beings. The cosmic subtle body called the Hiranyagarbha, is said to be the creator of the entire universe. This creator is Brahma. The manifested world of plurality has emerged from the unmanifest Reality. To indicate this Brahma the creator is described as being born from the navel of Vishnu as he is lying on the great serpent, Ananta in the milky ocean. One of the earliest iconographic descriptions of Brahma is that of the four-faced god seated on a lotus. The Lord has in his four hands a water-pot (kamandalu), a manuscript (Vedas), a sacrificial implement (sruva) and a rosary (mala). He wears the hide of a black antelope and his vehicle is a swan {hamsa). The description of Brahma like those of other deities of Hinduism bears a mystic symbolism. The lotus represents the Reality. Brahma sitting on the lotus indicates that he is ever-rooted in the infinite Reality. Reality is the foundation on which his personality rests. The four faces of Brahma represent the four Vedas. They also symbolise the functioning of the inner personality (antahkarana) which consists of thoughts. They are the mind (manas), the intellect (buddhi), ego (ahamkara) and conditioned-consciousness (chitta). They represent the four ways in which thoughts function. They are the manifestations of the unmanifest Consciousness. The animal hide worn by Brahma stands for austerity. A seeker who desires to realise his godhead must first go through spiritual disciplines. Observing such austerities the seeker must carefully study and reflect upon the scriptural truths which are suggested by the manuscript (Vedas) held in one hand. Having acquired the knowledge of scriptures he must work in the world without ego and egocentric desires, that is engage in dedicated and sacrificial service for the welfare of the world. This idea is suggested by the sacrificial implement held in the second hand. When a man works in the world selflessly he drops his desires. He is no longer extroverted, materialistic, sensual. His mind is withdrawn from its preoccupations with the world of objects and beings. Such a mind is said to be in uparati. A man who has reached the state of uparati is in a spirit of renunciation. That is indicated by Brahma holding the kamandalu in his hand. Kamandalu is a water-pot used by a sanyasi-a man of renunciation. It is a symbol of sanyasa or renunciation. The mind of such a man which is withdrawn from the heat of passion of the world is available for deeper concentration and meditation. The rosary (mala) in the fourth hand is meant to be used for chanting and meditation. Meditation is the final gateway to Realisation. Through deep and consistent meditation the mind gets annihilated and the seeker attains godhood. A god-man maintains his identity with his supreme Self while he is engaged in the world of perceptions, emotions and thoughts. He retains the concept of unity in diversity. He separates the pure unconditioned consciousness underlying this conditioned world of names and forms. Brahma's association with a swan is most appropriate in this context. A swan is described in Hindu mysticism as possessing the unique faculty of separating pure milk from a mixture of milk and water. It is reputed to have the ability to draw the milk alone and leave the water behind. Similarly does a man of Realization move about in the world recognizing the one divinity in the pluralistic phenomena of the world. Brahma is said to be the Lord of creation. The creator must necessarily possess the knowledge to create. Without knowledge no creation is possible. Hence Brahma is said to be wedded to the goddess of knowledge, Saraswati. Life in this world is a manifestation of the three principles of creation, sustenance and destruction. In fact these three are interconnected. The apparent destruction is only an essential forerunner to creation. Destruction and creation go hand in hand. They are like two sides of a coin. For example, the destruction of morning is creation of noon and the destruction of noon is creation of night. This chain of continuous destruction and construction maintains the day. Similarly, the destruction of childhood is the creation of youth and the destruction of youth the creation of old age. In this process of birth and death the individual is maintained. Hence the three gods of the Trinity viz. Brahma, Vishnu and Siva representing creation, maintenance and destruction, are essentially one and the same.

Vishnu the Preserver Protector of dharma (righteousness) and the guardian of humanity. His particular task is the conservation or preservation of the Divine Order in the world. Vishnu has 10 avatars or incarnations. He assumes these and comes down to earth in order to help humanity. Vishnu, the Preserver God, is the protector of dharma (righteousness) and the guardian of humanity. His particular task is the conservation or preservation of the Divine Order in the world. Vishnu has had10 avatars or incarnations. He assumes these and comes down to earth in order to help humanity. In reliefs, sculptures, and paintings Vishnu is shown possessing 4 arms and has a long and narrow sign in the shape of a U inscribed on his forehead. His followers wear the same sign. He carries his symbols of: 1. a white conch shell with which he is victor over the demons. 2. a rotating disc, a weapon to oppose every enemy of the Divine order. 3. a Golden mace, symbol of his royal power in the realm of gods and men. 4. a lotus flower, symbol of purity and original creation. His mount is the Garuda bird, an enormous eagle which often takes the form of a winged man with a strongly curved beak. He has a long and narrow sign in the shape of a U inscribed on his forehead. Vishnu is on the coils of the giant multi-hearded serpent, Ananta,who drifts endlessly on the eternal sea of milk. As the lord sleeps, he dreams the cosmos into reality. One of the most popular depictions of Vishnu is seated or lying upon Ananta, the cobra-headed snake, in the midst of the primeval ocean. From his navel grows the lotus out of which appears Brahma, who undertook the specific work of creation. Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu, is at his feet massaging his legs. Vishnu is the Lord of protection & maintenance. His consort Lakshmi is the possessor of wealth, which is a necessity for maintenance. Goddess Lakshmi represents not only material wealth, but the wealth of grains, courage, valour, offsprings, success, luxurious life, eternal bliss. Lord Vishnu is also called Nilameghashyamalan - possessing a complexion the colour of the dark clouds. As proof that opposites attract, Vishnu's outer appearnce is dark while he is associated with the santha gunam, bringing light & peace to the world. He rests on the ocean on his bed of Adisesha (serpent with 1,000 heads ). Any time Lord Vishnu sees great trouble, He takes an avataram to rescue the people from evils. He is all merciful, ever rushing to serve his devotees. In the form of Mahavishnu he has four arms wielding the chakra, conch, lotus & the gadha in his four arms. Some of the main avatarams of Vishnu are enumerated as the Dasavataram (10 Incarnations).

Lord Vishnu lies on the universal waters with Goddess Lakshmi massaging His feet. From His navel sprouts a lotus flower on which Lord Brahma is born.

Rama and Sita Rama is the 7th avatar of Vishnu.
Lord Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, is one of the most adored gods He is always holding a bow and arrow indicating his readiness to destroy evils. More commonly he is pictured with his wife Sita, his brother Lakshmana and his devotee Hanumana Rama is the 7th avatar of Vishnu. Whenever a god takes a 'human' form, such as Vishnu's incarnation as Rama the duplicate heads and arms are often abandoned. Lord Rama is one of the most commonly adored gods of Hindus. Rama is the hero of the Ramayana,is a story of a war which was caused by the abduction of a noble woman, Sita. He is always holding a bow and arrow indicating his readiness to destroy evils. He is also called "Shri Rama". More commonly he is pictured in a family style, (Ram Parivar) with his wife Sita, brother Lakshmana anddevotee Hanumana who is sitting near Lord Rama's feet.

Krishna Krishna is the 8th avatar of Vishnu.
The mythology around Krishna is the most colorful and the richest in lyricism, adventure and in love in all its forms. Krishna is central to the Mahabharata, the Sanskrit epic that is eight times longer than the Iliad and the Odyssey put together. Krishna is a loyal ally of humans and always helps his friends. His worship is popular all over India and there are many sacred shines to him. In Hinduism there is a concept known as Bhakti. Bhakti is the emotional attachment and love of a devotee for his or her personal god. This is common in the worship of Krishna.

Krishna Krishna is the 8th avatar of Vishnu. The mythology around Krishna is the most colorful and the richest in lyricism, adventure and in love in all its forms, from the sensuous to the worship of the divine. Krishna appears in the Mahabharata, the Sanskrit epic that is eight times longer than the Iliad and the Odyssey put together. The basic subject of the epic is the struggle and war between two families closely related to each other. Krishna is the most accessible of the major Hindu deities. He is a loyal ally of humans and always helps his friends. His worship is popular all over India and there are many sacred shines to him. Popular prints are sold at the shrines so that visitors can take them to friends and relatives when they return home. In Hinduism there is a concept known as Bhakti. Bhakti is the emotional attachment and love of a devotee for his or her personal god. This is common in the worship of Krishna. Krishna as a child was lively and mischievous. He always stole butter. There are many episodes of his childhood. Here is is shown uprooting trees outside of his hours. Krishna is portrayed as a blue color the same as Vishnu. Krishna is often shown with a flute. When he played his flute all the gopis or milk-maids fell in love with him. He is often depicted with the gopis all around him. It is said that he had intercourse with 16,000 women and fathered as many as 80,000 sons. He would tease the gopis and take their clothes.This is the quest for union with the divine.Radha is the great love of Krishna. She was his foster mother's younger sister. In this painting we see Krishna and Radha on their mount the Garudabird traveling through the sky. . When Krishna was born Vasudevar, carried the child by God's grace from the locked prison through rain and floods to the house of Nandagopar and Yasodha in Aayarpaadi. On the way, Aadiseshan covered the basket, protecting the child Krishna from the ravages of nature. Vasudeva left Krishna beside Yasodha and carried away her new born child (Parameswari, the maya child) to the prison. Kamsan, on hearing the birth of Krishna rushed to the prison, grabbed the child and tried to kill the child. The child however, rose up to the skies and ridiculed kamsan, that his arch enemy was still alive elsewhere and vanished. Krishna as a child In Aayarpaadi, everybody was thrilled and overjoyed. There were great celebrations. Krishna grew up enjoying the love and affection showered by all. Kamsan started sending asuras in search of Krishna. Even as a child, Krishna killed several asuras such as Boodaki, Thirunavardhan, Denukan, Bagan, Sagadasuran, and several others. He revealed to his mother Yasodha, the entire universe within his tiny open mouth. The mighty Kaalinga (snake) was subdued by him. He controlled the snake and danced on its head. He gave protection to the people of Gokulam for over a week from the heavy rains caused by Indra, by lifting the Govardana giri (mountain) and holding it as an umbrella. He killed Kamsan of Mathura. The Gopikas were thrilled by his venu gaanam (flute). Krishna married Rukmini. (Rukmini's brother Rukmi wanted her to marry his friend Sisubaalan. Krishna lifted Rukmini on to his chariot, swiftly reached Dwaraka and married Rukmini). The day that Krishna killed Naragasuran is celbrated as Deepavali. In the episode of obtaining the Syamantakamani, he married Jambavati, Jambavan's daughter and Satyabama Satrajit's daughter. ( Krishna's sister Subadra was married to Arjuna. Their son Abhimanyu married Vatsala, Balarama's daughter). The pancha Pandavas were cheated of their kingdom by Duryodhana, his brothers and Duryodhana's uncle Sakuni. With Krishna by thier side, the Pandavas ultimately defeated the Gauravas and got back their kingdom. (In the war field Krishna advised Arjuna to do his duty only and not to worry about the consequences, when Arjuna worried over killing his relatives.) Geethopadesam to Arjuna by Lord Krishna is truly a way of living to be followed by all human beings

Shiva the Destroyer Lord of the Dance
He performs the dance of destruction so that the world can be recreated. The third member of the Supreme Triad is Shiva or Mahadeva, the Greatest God. This god probably of Dravidian origin and is more complex than Vishnu. Shiva is the God of Destruction and the god of fertility. The symbol of Shiva is the lingam or phallic symbol. Shiva is worshipped for his essential characteristic energy, which is a directexpression of the inner workings of the universe. With this energy Shiva has many aspects and he may appear, as here, in the guise of fertility symbolized by the lingam. This is thought to be the earliest image of the God. The characteristic features of Shiva are the vertical third eye, and the three horizontal stripes upon his forehead. Shiva is full of contradictions. Although Shiva is the destroyer he is also the the god of mystical stillness and the god of the dance. He does the dance of destruction so that the world can be recreated. He is the acknowledgment that everything that comes to birth comes ultimately to death and from death comes new life.He is cruel and yet tender, wrathful and merciful, unpredictable and yetever the same. As Shiva Nataraja, Lord of the Dance, Shiva enacts the end of the world. He is the symbol of death but only of death as the generator of life and as a source of that creative power ever renewed by Vishnu and Brahma. He evokes the most intense adoration from devotees for he fascinates even as he terrifies. He dances for cosmic re-creation. Shiva's dance of bliss is the catalyst for the destruction of one period of time and the creation of a new cosmos. He has a third eye in the center of his forehead, the skull and crescent moon in his headdress. He has long, matted hair and there is a small female figure of the river goddess Ganga in the loose locks of hair twirling around head. The Indian genius for expressing movement in sculpture derives in large part from the high aesthetic value that dancing holds in Indian tradition. It is the posturings and movements of the dance that inpire the imagination of the sculptor.The four arms display the powers of Shiva. The upper right holds the drum or vibrant rattle of creation. The upper left holds the flame of destruction. The lower right hand is raised in the gesture of protection. The lower left hand points to the upraised foot that symbolizes escape from illusion, represented by the dwarf whom he crushes beneath his right foot. The drum is a symbol of rhythm and sound. The matted hair symbolizes his power (like Samson). Crescent moon is the symbol of growth and birth

Shiva is the acknowledgment that everything that comes to birth comes ultimately to death and from death comes new life. He is cruel and yet tender, wrathful and merciful, unpredictable and yet ever the same. he dance of Lord Shiva is also referred to as the cosmic dance and has both philosophical and scientific significance. Tradition has it that there are five Shivalingas in the Tamil realm of South India, within a certain radius, that correspond to the pancha-mahabhutas or the five elements of the universe: earth, water, fire, wind and ether. The earth or Prithvi-Linga is worshipped at Kanchi, the water or Apa-Linga at Jambukeshwara, the fire or Tejas-Linga at Tiruvannamalai, the wind or Vayu-Linga at Kalahasti and the ether or Akasha-Linga at Chidambaram. The emotions evoked by myth and symbol in the Indian tradition cover the entire spectrum of human existence; and so too at Chidambaram, where the form of Shiva as Nataraja, the great dancer, has been the subject of veneration and interpretation through the ages. Shiva as Nataraja stands in a halo or circle of flames. The circle issues from the mouth of a pair of dolphins or makara. The halo symbolises Pranava, the mystic syllable Om. The drum in Shiva's right hand symbolises sound, primal creation. The primordial sounds of the alphabet emerged from Shiva's drum, and formed the basis of grammar or Vyakarana. Legend has it that Shiva danced at Chidambaram to please his two devotees, Vyaghrapada and Patanjali, the latter being credited with the science of grammar. The deer on one side symbolises the mind - and just as the deer leaps all around, so too the human mind leaps from one thing to another. The tiger-skin that Shiva wears is the skin of Ahamkara, egoism, which he has killed. The Ganga issuing from Shiva's head is the Chittashakti or wisdom, which is cool and refreshing. The moon symbolises the ethereal light and bliss of Atman. One foot is planted over the demon Muyalaka, symbolising Maya or the delusion that has been torn asunder. The raised right foot signifies renunciation, the fourth state of mental absorption called Turiya. The second right hand represents peace, and in one the left hands is held Agni, symbolising the lighting up of the Atman. The place of the dance is the Thillai Vanam, the body of the individual self, the heart itself. Shiva is represented with three eyes, symbols of the Sun, Moon and Fire; of time past, present and future. He wears in his right ear a man's earring called the Makara-Kundala, and in his left a woman's earring called the Tatanka, demonstrating his Ardhanarishvara form, combining the masculine and the feminine aspects of the Universe. Besides the Rudrakshas, he wears the Upavita, the sacred thread consisting of 96 strands representing the 96 Tattvas or categories. Shiva's serpent represents the cosmic force or the Kundalini Shakti in Yogic parlance.

The Great Goddess Parvati and Uma are the benign aspects of the goddess; the destroyer goddesses Kali and Durga are in turn all aspects of the Devi, or the Great Goddess. Kali is the negative aspect of the Goddess and symbolizes death. In this form she is sometimes considered the presiding deity of famine and disease.

Durga At the top of Mandi town there is a temple of Shyama Kali deity, which is another manifestation of the consort of Lord Siva. It. is said that the divine s use once started dancing and in her joy she lost herself and went on with a fierce dance putting the three worlds in danger. Siva, her husband, was approached to do something and Siva quietly laid himself on her route of dance. When, Kali had put her feet on prostrated Siva she came to herself and stopped. In this manifestation the spouse Kali is painted black oil the face and she looks fierce with her garland of skulls and tongue protruding out of remorse for treading on her husband's body. The Goddess Kali is almost always described as having a terrible, frightening appearance. She is always black or dark, is usually naked, and has long dishevelled hair. She is adorned with several arms as a girdle, freshly cut heads as a necklace, children's corpses as earrings, and serpents as bracelets. She has long, sharp fangs, is often depicted as having clawlike hands with long nails, and is often said to have blood smeared on Her lips. Her favourite haunts heighten Her fearsome nature. She is usually shown on the battlefield, where She is a furious combatant who gets drunk on the hot blood of Her victims, or in a cremation ground, where She sits on a corpse surrounded by jackals and goblins." 1 In general we might describe Kali as a Goddess who threatens stability and order. She is the destroyer of the very world She is supposed to protect. Kali, the Great Mother Goddess who brings Life and Death. She is the furious embodiment of the divine feminine that is released when she becomes enraged. According to Barbara Walker, "Kali was the basic archetypal image of the birth-and-death Mother, simultaneously womb and tomb, giver of life and devourer of her children: the same image portrayed in a thousand ancient religions." 2 One legend says that Kali manifested when the demon Daruka appropriated divine power and the powerful Goddess Parvati knitted Her brows. From Her fury sprang Kali, armed with a trident. She dispatched Daruka and remained in existence, beyond even the control of Parvati, of whom She is an aspect. Kali is still one of India's most popular Goddesses. In fact the city of Calcutta is an anglicised version of the name Kali-Ghatt, or "steps of Kali", Her temple. The bloody rites of Kali worship are sometimes so terrifying, that few understand them. Kali is a symbol of the worst we can imagine and by knowing Her, we can overcome the terror of our own death and destruction. "Once faced and understood... Kali frees her worshippers of all fear and becomes the greatest of mothers, the most comforting of all goddesses." 3 Kali is an important figure in Hinduism, despite Her intimidating appearance and ghastly habits. She takes a central role in Tantrism, where an underlying assumption if ideology is that reality is the result of the symbiotic interaction of male and female, Siva and Sakti - polar opposites that in interaction produce a creative tension.. In Tantra it is Kali's vitality that is sought through techniques aimed at spiritual transformation. She is affirmed as the dominant and primary reality. Parvathi exists in various divine (both friendly and fearful) forms. Two of her fierce but very powerful forms are Durga (goddess beyond reach) and Kali (goddess of destruction). Both have eight hands and great power andenergy (Shakti). Durga rides on a lion and Kalirides on a corpse of a demonIn her terrifying aspects, the most commonly worshipped forms are Durga & Kali. These are forms taken by the Goddess in an effort to destroy some form of evil & hence even these forms need not invoke fear, for she is the mother who has risen in anger only to destoy evil forces and provide eternal happiness and peace to her children. As Durga she is seen with four - twenty hands. She has 3 eyes, the 3rd eye in her forehead. She is adorned in bright red sari. In her hands she holds the discuss, bow, trident, bow & arrow, sword, gadha, etc., Her vahana is the lion and she is sometimes seen as standing on a lotus or on a buffalo's head. Kali

Hindu Dynasties 3rd-15th c.
Confused political scene especially in South Warlike clans in Rajasthan: Rajputs Pallave dynasty dominates the south warring with Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas Christianity and Zorastrianism introduced into India Turkish raids Decline and disappearance of Buddhism in India around 13th c.

Rajputs The origin of the Rajputs is a controversy. They claimed to be the descendants of the Kshatriyas of the Vedic times. Rajput also means 'scion of the royal blood' as used in certain parts of Rajasthan. Some theory tells us that they were the descendants of the Sakas, Hunas and the Kushanas ! Eventually they intermixed with the Hindus and made India their home. What one can conclude is "The Rajputs are not a race but a group of clans of distinct origin". The Pratihara clan of Kanauj has been proved to be of Gurjara origin. The most important of Hun group of tribes had established a powerful dynasty in Kanauj. The House of Mewar played an important role in political and military history of India for centuries to come, and gave Rajput heroes like Bapa Raval, Rana Sanga, and Rana Pratap. The theory of Agnikula origin of the Rajput, states that Parasuram destroyed all the Kshatriyas. However, Brahmanas felt the need to defend them and performed an Yaga which gave them four heroes and each one of them created a separate clan. There came into existence Chauhans, Chalukyas, Paramaras and the Pratiharas. The palaces, temples, forts that were built by Rajputs are the finest examples of Indian architecture. The Rajputs ruling central Hindustan, circulated coins mostly of gold, copper, billon and rarely silver. The gold, the drammas in weight were first struck by Gangeyadeva Vikramaditya of Dahala of the Kalachuri dynasty. These coins had the familiar goddess of wealth, Lakshmi on the obverse. In these coins, the Goddess is shown with four arms than the usual two arms of the Gupta coins; the reverse carried the nagari legend. The similar type of gold coins were also struck by Chandela kings of Mahoba in Bundelkand ( ), Tomara dynasty of Ajmer & Delhi ( ), and the Rathor kings of Kanauj. Muhammad of Ghor too actually struck few pieces in this style. The invariable device Lakshmi became the motif on the coinage of Rajputs like that of later Kushanas, Kidarites and Guptas. On the obverse, the frontally faced seated female figure is placed within the dotted border. She has a nimbus behind her head, which is also bordered with dots. Her left and right legs are either laced in front with symmetry or one on the other, her two upper hand holds lotus stalks, and the two lower ones rest on her lap or thighs. She wears a necklace, ear rings, bangles, girdles, and possibly anklets. The reverse carried the legend in three lines - "Srimad", followed by the kings name and then on the third line "Deva". Of billons and the silver coins issued by Rajputs, the seated bull and horseman was the invariable device. They were first struck by the Brahman Kings of Ohind (Gandhara) on silver, the commonest were the issues of Spalapati Deva and Samanta Deva. The name of the king surrounded the bull in a circular style, wherein the undeciphered script (Turanian ??) appeared on the obverse above bull. These type of coins were continued by the Tomaras, Chauhans of Delhi, Rathors of Kanauj, Rajputs of Narwar and the Amritapala rajas of Badayun. They were all mostly struck on billon. The invariable device Bull and Horseman lasted the next three centuries in the hands of Kangra kings.

Rajputs Princely members of the Kashitrya “warrior” caste
Ruled northern and western India 7th-12th c. in local kingdoms, often at rivalry with each other Champions of dharma and devotees of Siva and Durga Predominantly Hindu, but tolerated all worship within their realms Prolific fort and palace-builders

Kumbhalgarh fort built by Maharana Kumbha.

Vijay Sthamb (Victory Tower) built byMaharana Kumbha
Kumbhalgarh fort : Perimeter wall is 20 miles long. Six horses could ride abreast on the fort ramparts. Vijay Sthamb (Victory Tower) built byMaharana Kumbha

Udai Palace at Udaipur (city founded by Maharana Udai Singh).

Khajuraho The temples at Khajuraho were built during the Chandella dynasty, which reached its apogee between 950 and 1050. Only about 20 temples remain; they fall into three distinct groups and belong to two different religions – Hinduism and Jainism. They strike a perfect balance between architecture and sculpture. UNESCO World Heritage Site

Kandariya Mahdeo in Khajuraho

Hindu Religious Literature: The Puranas
18 religious books preserving Hindu myths and legends contain 5 major subjects Sarga: the creation of the universe. Pratisarga: secondary creations, mostly recreations after dissolution. Vamśa: genealogy of the gods and sages. Manvañtara: the creation of the human race and the first human beings. Vamśānucaritam: the histories of the patriarchs of the lunar and solar dynasties.

Hindu Religious Literature: Epic Poetry
The Gita Govinda is a work composed by the 12th-century poet, Jayadeva. It describes the relationship between Krishna and the gopis (female cow herders) particularly one gopi named Radha. Important the development of the bhakti traditions

Gita Govinda manuscript c. 1550.

Hindu Religious Literature: Bhakti Poetry
Bhakti: mystical devotion to god Lyric poetry spoken and sung by poet-saints Tamil hymns (6th-9th c) – earliest bhakti poetry – focused on Shiva and Vishnu Tradition of bhakti poetry spread throughout India and its 16 major languages Popular and populist: poets came from all castes, including untouchables and women Belief that mysticism was the highest path to release from karma Highly personal and individual: a form of spiritual autobiography

Mahadeviyakka 12th c Princess who left her royal husband
Wandered naked through countryside – total devotion to Siva meant giving up conventional coverings society required for females 350 poems express her passionate thoughts on God, love and the world

Mahadeviyakka 12th c You can confiscate money in hand;
can you confiscate the body’s glory? Or peel away every strip you wear, but can you peel the Nothing, the Nakedness that covers and veils? To the shameless girl wearing the White Jasmine’s Lord’s light of morning, you fool, where’s the need for cover and jewel? Mahadeviyakka 12th c

Muslim Incursions 711 -- Arabs take Sind
11th c. -- Invasions of Muslims from Central Asia led to political dominance of Muslims in N. India and introduction of Persian culture and Islam into South Asia Development of Sufism Some said that Sufism was an outcome of the historical Islam, while others believed that it developed as a reaction to the Islamic concept itself. Also many are still asserting that Sufism comprised an evident effect of the Indian, Christian and Chinese creed .Yet it is well-known that Sufism principles and ideas and even it’s literary texts are a source from which many drew their instructions, for instance Saint John, Saint Teresa and Guru Nanak . Many Sufis asserted that their instructions were found thousands of years ago and there were evidences of the relation between Sufism and the Pythagorean, Monasticism and Platonic currents. But what is the essence of Sufism ? It might be said that Sufism means self-denial and self-isolation as if a person is being born once again. Sufism might be also considered a deep process of change within the effect of a “Divine Presence”. It is not a religion or a philosophy, it is not a creed or a group of rituals but a sort of training on the Supreme rational knowledge. Sufis founded their own method from the practices of different religions and doctrines. For Instance newly joiners must shave their hair similar to some of the Hindu rituals, offer certain foods and drinks for visitors in the same manner of some Buddhists and specify forty days during some occasions to undergo certain rituals just as some Hindus. Similarly, the custom of “Stop Breathing” known by Sufis was taken from the Hindu yoga which can be defined -in fact- as a process of mind preparation more than that of the body. Amir Khusraw, The sufi lyrical-poet, analyzed the process of citation from Hinduism in particular that “although the Hindu has a different religion, yet he believes in what I believe and those who criticize the Hindu paganism must learn from his sincere and deep observance “. Actually Amir Khusraw wrote unique songs praising the beauty and glory of India. Those songs were a wonderful example of India’s compound culture. Khusraw the first Indian poet to write in Persian outside Persian countries won the love of millions of Indians though he belonged to the first generation of Muslim Indians .He wrote wonderful songs and poems praising different aspects of the Indian life, and also describing parting of lovers. Those songs are being sung till now exactly as he wrote them seven hundred years ago. In his book “Bigger Foundations”, he mentioned fourteen Sufi orders which were prevailing in India during the age of the great mogul Emperor Akbar . Yet six of which were more common and attractive to Hindus and Muslims as well. The first and most important order was the Chishtiya, which was found by sheik Mu’in al-Din Chishti. Sheik Chishti arrived in India during the age of Prithviraj Chauhan and settled in Ajmer, which was a religious center for Hindus. Among his prominent followers was Kutb al-Din Bakhtyar al-Kaaki whose shrine was a place for celebrating “Flower Sellers” festival, which was a great laic tradition since the age of Akbar Shah II . This festival was very famous that participants from different categories were keen to attend. The popularity of this festival reached its peak during the age of the last Mogul Epicure Bahador Shah. Strangely it continued during the British colonization, yet it stopped in 1942 by the beginning of the “ Quit India “ movement. In 1962 Nehru resumed this Tradition which was considered a wonderful representation of India’s compound culture to the formation of which, many Sufi sheiks contributed.

Delhi Sultanate : Turko-Afghan chieftains establish sultanate at Delhi and dominate N. India Multiple Muslim dynasties rule Northern India from the 13th-16th centuries. The Sultans based their laws on the Qur'an and the sharia and permitted non-Muslim subjects to practice their religion if they paid jizya or head tax. Temporarily successful in insulating the subcontinent from the potential devastation of the Mongol invasion in the 13th century. "Indo-Muslim" fusion left lasting monuments in architecture, music, literature, and religion. he Sultans of Delhi enjoyed cordial, if superficial, relations with other Muslim rulers in the Near East but owed them no allegiance. The Sultans based their laws on the Qur'an and the sharia and permitted non-Muslim subjects to practice their religion only if they paid jizyaor head tax. The Sultans ruled from urban centers -- while military camps and trading posts provided the nuclei for towns that sprang up in the countryside. Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Sultanate was its temporary success in insulating the subcontinent from the potential devastation of the Mongol invasion from Central Asia in the thirteenth century. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion left lasting monuments in architecture, music, literature, and religion. The Sultanate suffered from the sacking of Delhi in 1398 by Timur (Tamerlane), and soon other independent Sultanates were established in Awadh, Bengal, Jaunpur, Gujarat and Malwa. The Delhi Sultanate revived briefly under the Lodhis before it was conquered by the Mughal emperor Babur in1526.

Delhi Sultanate 13th-16th c.

TimurLang (Tamerlane) sacks Delhi 1398-99
Mongol ruler who attempted to reclaim Genghis Khan’s empire Attacked India and conquered Delhi after slaughtering 100,000 captives

Vasco da Gama reaches India 1498
Opened the Indian or Cape Route for regular sailings between East and West Expansion and consolidation of Portugese empire and trade, dissemination of Portugese culture and Christianity Portugese settlements in Goa and Cochin 1524: Da Gama named Portugese viceroy in India by King John III.

Moghul Empire (Islamic) 1526-1858
Unification of N. India and parts of S. India under its rule Amalgam of Persian and Indian culture created in courts and territories Establishment of trading outposts in India by Europeans: 1609: Dutch 1612: English 1674: French

Moghul Dynasty I (1526-56) Founded by Babur
2nd Classical Age of North India Delhi flourishes as Imperial Capital Amalgamation of Turko-Iranian culture

Moghul Dynasty II (1556-1627) King Akbar
Akbar consolidates and builds strong empire Akbar commissions illustrated Persian translations of Sanskrit epics, The Ramayana and Mahabharata Jahangir succeeds his father 1600: Elizabeth I of England gives charter for trade to East India Company King Akbar

Agra’s magnificent monument, the Red Fort,
was begun by Akbar in the 16th c. and embellished by Emperor Shah Jahan in the 17th c.

Taj Mahal, Agra, 1630-48. Mausoleum built by Shah Jahan for hisWife, Mumtaz Mahal
In 1612, Arjumand Banu Begam, better known by her other name , Mumtaz Mahal was married to Shah Jehan (then Prince Khurram), the fifth mughal emperor. This marriage, although the emperor's second, was a real love-match, and Mumtaz was her husband's inseparable companion on all his journeys and military expeditions. She was his comrade, his counsellor, and inspired him to acts of charity and benevolence towards the weak and the needy. She bore him fourteen children, and died in childbed in 1630 (only three years after his accession to the throne) in Burhanpur in the Deccan where she had accompanied him on a military campaign. Overpowered by grief, Shah Jehan was determined to perpetuate her memory for immortality and decided to build his beloved wife the finest sepulchre ever - a monument of eternal love. It was Shah Jehan's everlasting love for Mumtaz that led to the genesis of the Taj Mahal. The sad circumstances which attended the early death of the empress who had endeared herself to the people inspired all his subjects to join in the emperor's pious intentions. After twenty-two laborious years, and the combined effort of over twenty thousand workmen and master craftsmen, the complex was finally completed in 1648 on the banks on the river Yamuna in Agra, the capital of mughal monarchs. The origin of the name the "Taj Mahal" is not clear. Court histories from Shah Jehan's reign only call it the rauza (tomb) of Mumtaz Mahal. It is generally believed that "Taj Mahal" (usually translated as either "Crown Palace" or "Crown of the Palace") is an abbreviated version of her name, Mumtaz Mahal (Exalted One of the Palace).

Sources “Rajput”: http://hindurajput.blogspot.com/
“Khajuraho”: “The Mughals”:

Medieval India.

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Medieval India."— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback

Log in

Auth with social network:

Medieval India.

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Medieval India."— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback