1. Section One: The Skeleton
Functional Anatomy
Section One: The Skeleton

2. Functions of a Skeleton
The skeleton performs 5 basic functions:
FUNCTION
EXPLANATION
EXAMPLES
MOVEMENT
Where bones meet we form joints. In combination with muscles, we create movement.
Bones move because of joints and muscles, e.g. elbow moved by biceps
PROTECTION
Provide protection to vital organs
Scapula – lungs
Skull – brain
SUPPORT
Give support for organs and tissue so they do not collapse.
Spine supports the head and trunk
STORAGE
Minerals are stored in bones
Storage of calcium and potassium
SUPPLY
Red and white blood cells are produced in bone marrow
Femur produces red blood cells

3. 1.3 Axial and Appendicular Skeleton
All the bones of the skeleton are divided into two main groups. These are known as:
Axial Skeleton
Appendicular Skeleton
AXIAL SKELETON
Consists of those bones forming the central column of the body,
i.e. spine, skull and ribcage.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Those bones that attach to the axial skeleton, i.e. shoulders, hips and the limbs.

4. 1.4 Classification of Bones
BONE CLASSIFICATION
BASIC FUNCTION
EXAMPLES
Long*
*The length is greater than width
Production of red blood cells and white blood cells. Movement.
Humerus, femur, radius and ulna
Short
Small of fine movements
Carpals
(wrist)
Tarsals (ankle)
Irregular
Movement support and muscle attachment
Face and vertebrae
Flat
Protection and attachment
Shoulder
blade and breastbone
Bones are classified according to
their shape.
They fall into four basic
categories:
Long bones
Short bones
Irregular bones
Flat bones
Using the table, fill in the basic
function of each type of bone and
provide some examples of these.

5. On the skeleton, colour the short, flat, long and irregular bones you can identify.

6. What do you notice about the location of most of the flat bones
What do you notice about the location of most of the flat bones? Why might this be?
Located around the main organs, e.g. brain, heart. To give
protection.
What do you notice about the location of most of the long bones? Why might this be?
Located in legs and arms. These are the regions of most joints and therefore movement.

7. 1.5 Identifying Bones of the Skeleton
As a pre-test, try naming as many bones as possible on the skeleton below. Use common or anatomical terms.
Cranium (skull)
Vertebrae – cervical (neck)
Sternum (breastbone)
Ribs (ribcage)
Vertebrae – lumbar (lower back)
Pelvis (hip) = Ilium, Ischium & Pubis
Metacarpals (palm)
Phalanges (fingers)
Tibia (shin)

8. Maxilla (face)
Mandible (jaw)
Scapula (shoulder blade)
Clavicle (collarbone)
Ulna (forearm)
Humerus (upper arm)
Radius (forearm)
Femur (thigh)
Fibula (shin)
Patella (knee cap)
Tarsal (heel)
Metatarsals (foot)
Phalanges (toes)

9. Identify and explain the function of the following skeletal structures.
A. Cranium (common name = skull)
Designed to protect the brain. Made up
of a number of inter-connecting bones.
THE HEAD A
B. Maxilla (common name = face)
Houses the eyes and sinuses. Protects
these features against damage. B C
C. Mandible (common name = jaw)
Responsible for talking, chewing etc.

10. 2. THE RIBCAGE
Ribs (common name = ribs)
12 pairs in all. Designed to protect the heart and lungs
Rib
3. THE CHEST
A. Sternum (common name = breast bone )
Protects the heart and lungs. It is the bone pressed on in C.P.R.

11. 4. THE SPINE
Cervical vertebrae. These are small delicate bones responsible for neck movement. There are seven bones in all.
Thoracic vertebrae. Allow ribs to attach to the spine hence there are 12 of them (one for each rib pair).
Lumbar vertebrae. These are the largest of the vertebrae and are responsible for weight-bearing. There are five in all.
The sacrum (upper) and coccyx (lower) are a series of fused (joined) bones that help form the pelvis.

12. What do the shapes of the bones tell you about their function?
Those that are larger have a roll in weight or load bearing
e.g. lumbar and thoracic. Smaller ones are important for
movement e.g. cervical.
5. THE SHOULDER
A. Scapula (common name = shoulder blade )
Protects the lungs. Forms shoulder joint.
B. Clavicle (common name = collarbone)
Holds the shoulder in place. Easily broken. B A

13. 6. THE ARM
A. Humerus (common name = upper arm )
Prime function is movement.
B. Radius (common name = Forearm )
Prime function is movement, always located
on thumb-side of forearm.
C. Ulna (common name = forearm )
D. Carpels (common name = wrist )
E. Metacarpels (common name = palms )
F. Phalanges (common name = Fingers ) A B C D E F

14. 7. THE PELVIS
A. Ilium (common name = pelvis)
Protects intestines
B. Pubis ( common name = pelvis)
Forms front of pelvis. Has to separate
in childbirth.
C. Ischium (common name = pelvis)
Forms the ‘boney bum’. A B C

15. A. Femur (common name = thigh )
Largest bone in the body, responsible for support and movement.
B. Patella (common name = knee cap )
Protects the knee joint.
C. Tibia (common name = shin )
Support and movement.
D. Fibula (common name = shin)
‘Thinner’ bone of leg. Support and movement.
E. Tarsels (common name = ankle)
Bones of the ankle and heel. Support and balance.
F. Metatarsels (common name = foot)
Form the sole of the foot. Support and balance.
G. Phalanges (common name = toes)
Support, movement and balance.
8. THE LEG A B C D E F G

16. Section Two: Terms of Direction
Functional Anatomy
Section Two: Terms of Direction

17. 2.2 The Anatomical Position
In order to explain the positioning of bones, organs, muscles and the like on the human body, anatomists have agreed on a standardised position for the human body in all cases. This is known as the anatomical position.
THE ANATOMICAL POSITION
There are four key features to note:
Palms face forward
Body is upright
Thumbs point outward – so radius and ulna and uncrossed
Face is forward

18. The terms of direction in the next section are all with respect to this position.
Why is it important to always talk about the position of organs, bones and muscles in or on the human body with respect to the anatomical position?
This enables everyone to talk from the same point of view regardless of their profession or level of expertise.

19. 2.3 Anatomical Terms of Direction
These refer to the position of parts of the body, or of one part with respect to another.
Term
Definition
Examples
Anterior
On the FRONT of the body or limb
1. The chest is on
the anterior of the body
2. The face is an anterior aspect of the head.
Posterior
On the BACK of the body or limb
1. The buttocks are on
the posterior of the body
2. The calf muscles are
on the posterior of the leg
Superior
Above or on top of
1. The cervical vertebrae
are superior to the thoracic vertebrae
2. The thoracic vertebrae
are superior to the lumbar vertebrae

20. Term Definition Examples
Inferior
Below or beneath
1. Thoracic vertebrae are inferior to the cervical vertebrae
2. The lumbar vertebrae are inferior to the thoracic vertebrae
Medial
Nearer the midline of the body
The big toe is on
the medial aspect
of the foot
2. The little finger is on the medial aspect of the hand
Lateral
Further away from the midline of the body
1. Little toe is on the
lateral aspect of
the foot.
2. The thumb is on
the lateral aspect
of the hand

21. Term Definition Examples
Distal
Further away from the body. Usually refers to the limbs.
1. Wrist is distal to the elbow
2. Elbow joint is distal to the shoulder joint
Proximal
Nearer the body. Usually refers to the limbs.
Elbow is proximal to the wrist joint
2. Shoulder joint is proximal to the elbow
Prone
Face down
A press-up is on the
PRONE position
Supine
Face up
A sit-up is on the SUPINE position

22. Term Definition Examples
Deep
When a muscle is BENEATH another with respect to the skin surface
The ilio psoas is a
deep muscle
of the hip
Superficial
On the surface of the body or limb
Pectoralis major is a superficial muscle of the chest
Iliopsoas
Pectoralis Major
This exercise has shown that the terms of direction compliment each other. Complete the list below by placing the opposite term next to the one provided.
Superior - Inferior Anterior - Posterior
Proximal - Distal Medial - Lateral
Deep - Superficial Supine - Prone

23. Section Three: The Joints
Functional Anatomy
Section Three: The Joints

24. 3.2. Overview of Joint Types
There are three broad categories of joint type in the body. They are classed according to the degree of movement possible.
The three categories are:
1. Immovable Also known as fibrous joints
2. Slightly movable Also known as cartilaginous joints
3. Freely movable Also known as synovial joints
We shall look at all these categories in turn.

25. 3.3 Fibrous Joints
These are non-movable joints. They are the result of tough fibrous tissue forming where the two bone ends meet.
What is the function of a fibrous joint?
To provide protection.
Examples include:
1. Skull
2. Pelvis
Fibrous joint

26. 3.4 Cartilaginous Joint
These are slightly-movable joints. They are the result of cartilage forming where the two bone meet. This gives a fair degree of resilience.
What is the function of a cartilaginous joint?
To act as shock absorbers.
Examples include:
1. Invertebral discs
2. Ribs to sternum
3.Where pubic bones meet
Cartilaginous Joints

27. 3.5 Synovial Joint
These are freely movable joints. The only limitation in range of movement is as a result of bone shape at the joint, and ligaments.
What is the primary function of a synovial joint?
To provide movement.
All synovial joints follow the same basic structure as shown

28. The key components of your illustration have important roles to play in maintaining the structure of the joint.
Ligaments Join bone to bone for stability
2. Capsule Provides stability and protection from infection
3. Cartilage Reduce wear and tear on bones
4. Synovial Fluid Lubricates the joint and provides shock absorption
5. Synovial Membrane Produces synovial fluid
In some joints, for example the knee, there are pads of fat and/or discs of cartilage to further help absorb shock and reduce general ‘wear and tear’.

29. 3.6 Types of Synovial Joints
Synovial joints can be divided into six basic types. The types are governed by the type of movement or movements they allow.
The six basic types are:
Gliding
Hinge
Pivot
Condyloid
Saddle
Ball and Socket

30. 1. Gliding
Definition: The bone surfaces are small and flat, or slightly concave and one bones slides over the other.
Examples:
1. Carpals and tarsals
2. Ribs and vertebrae
3. Scapula and ribs
Movements: Only slight movement is possible due to the restrictions of attached ligaments.
Movements possible are:
1. side to side (abduction / adduction)
2. Back and forth (extension/flexion)

31. 2. Hinge
Definition: Two bones join in such a way that movement is possible only in one direction, usually at right angles to the bones.
Examples:
1. Elbow
2. Knee
3. Ankle
Movements: A uniaxial joint allowing movement in only one direction
The only movement possible is:
Back and forth (extension/flexion)

32. 3. Pivot
Definition: A joint constructed in such a way that rotation only is possible (usually about the long axis of the bone)
Examples:
1. Atlas and axis of neck
2. Radius and humerous
Movements: A uniaxial joint allowing movement in only one direction
The only movement possible is:
Rotation

33. 4. Condyloid
Definition: Also known as an ellipsoid joint. The bone ends make the shape of an ellipse.
Examples:
1. Carpals and radius
2. Metacarpals and phalange
Movements: A biaxial joint allowing movement in two main directions.
The movements possible are:
1. Back and forth (extension/flexion)
2. Side to side (abduction/adduction)
3. Some Circumduction

34. 5. Saddle
Definition: The bone ends are shaped like a rider on a saddle
Example:
1. Carpal/metacarpal of thumb
Movements: A biaxial joint allowing movement in two main directions.
Movements possible are:
1. side to side (abduction / adduction)
2. Back and forth (extension/flexion)

35. 6. Ball and Socket
Definition: A ball-shaped bone end fits into a socket or cup-shaped bone.
Examples:
1. Hip
2. Shoulder
Movements: A multiaxial joint allowing
movement in many directions around the joint.
The movements possible are:
1. Back and forth (extension/flexion)
2. Side to side (abduction/adduction)
3. Rotation
4. Circumduction

36. The shoulder joint is the most freely moving ball and socket joint we have. The illustration may help you with your answer.
Why is the shoulder joint so freely moving?
Because the socket is shallow.
What do you suppose is the risk of such a freely moving joint?
It is easy to dislocate.

37. 3.7. Movements at Synovial Joints
Just as we learnt a set of terms to describe the positioning of bones, muscles and organs in the body, so we have a set of terms to describe how joints move.
Term
Definition
Examples
Flexion
Bending or decreasing the angle between two bones

38. Straightening or increasing the angle between two bones
Term
Definition
Examples
Extension
Straightening or increasing the angle between two bones

39. Term Definition Examples
Abduction
Moving a limb or part of a limb away from the midline of the body
Moving outwards on a star jump
Adduction
Moving a limb or part of a limb towards the midline of the body
Bringing the limbs back together in a star jump
Circumduction
A combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction.
The movement of the limb resembles the shape of a cone
The arm stroke in
Butterfly

40. Term Definition Examples
Rotation
Twisting of a limb about its long axis
Turning the head
Twisting
the trunk
Supination
Movement of the hand into a palm-up position
Holding a bowl of soup
Turning a card over
Turning a page in a book
Pronation
Movement of the hand into a palm-down position tipping the soup out
Turning a card face down
Closing a book

41. Term Definition Examples
Inversion
Movement of the sole of the foot inward
Eversion
Movement of the sole of the foot outward
Dorsi flexion
Movement of the top of the foot upward, closer to the shin
Plantar flexion
Movement of the sole of the foot downward

42. Underarm Volley ball serve
Frame
Joint
Bones at the joint
Movement or Position A
Knee
Femur (thigh) & Tibia (shin)
Flexion
Trunk (at hip)
Pelvis (hip) & Femur
A → D
Right Shoulder
Scapula (shoulder blade) & Humerus (upper arm)
A → C
Right Hip
Extension
Right Foot (at ankle)
Tibia, Fibula (shin) & Tarsals (ankle)
Plantarflexion
Right Knee
Femur & Tibia
Right Hand (at wrist)
Radius & Ulna (forearm) & Carpals (wrist)
Slight (flexion) D
Right Elbow
Radius, Ulna & Humerus

43. Section Four: The Muscles
Functional Anatomy
Section Four: The Muscles

44. 4.2 Identifying Muscles Trapezius Deltoid Biceps Triceps
Pectoralis Major
Latissimus Dorsi
Rectus Abdominus
Gluteus Maximus
Hamstrings
Quadriceps
Gastrocnemius

45. 4.3 Guide to Individual Muscles
[A] PRIME MOVERS OF THE TRUNK
Rectus adbominus:
Location : A group of two muscles running lengthwise along the medial aspect of the abdomen. They are rather like two columns of muscle running up either side of the belly button.
They run from the pubis (pelvis) to the cartilage of the 5th, 6th and 7th ribs.
Movements: Rectus abdominus allows two basic
movements.
1. Flexion of the trunk
2. Lateral flexion of the trunk
Application: Typical sporting actions include:
1. Sit ups
2. Cartwheels
3. Pike in diving
Rectus Abdominus

46. 2. Erector Spinae Group: [A] PRIME MOVERS OF THE TRUNK
Location : One of the main muscles located in the lower back and one of the few visible. It runs from the pelvis to the lumbar vertebrae.
Movements: Erector spinae group allows two basic movements.
They are:
1. Extension of the spine
2. Lateral flexion of the trunk
Application
Typical sporting actions include:
1. Straightening out from a pike
2. Rowing
3. Swimming (body position)
Erector Spinae

47. 1. Trapezius: [B] PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER
Location : A large triangular muscle located on the posterior aspect of the body.
It runs in a triangular shape from the base of the skull, the 7th cervical vertebrae and all the thoracic vertebrae, to the scapula and clavicle.
Movements: Trapezius allows four basic movements.
They are:
Raise the head
Pull the shoulders back
Raise the scapula
4. Drop the scapula
Application: Typical sporting actions include:
1. Pulling shoulder when throwing
2. Rowing
3. Looking up in basketball
Trapezius

48. 2. Latissimus Dorsi: [B] PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER
Location : The broadest muscle of the back. It forms the
back of the armpit.
This is a large triangular muscle which covers
the lumbar and lower thoracic region of the back.
It runs from the lower thoracic and lumber regions,
to the anterior aspect of the humerus
Movements: Latissimus dorsi allows three basic movements.
They are:
1. Adduction of the upper arm
2. Extension of the shoulder
3. Internal rotation of the shoulder
How can latissimus dorsi allow internal rotation of the
shoulder to occur if it is a muscle located on the back?
Because it attaches to the humerus
Application: Typical sporting actions include:
1. Recovery in breaststroke
2. Ten-pin bowling
3. Drawing arm back to punch
Latissimus dorsi

49. 3. Deltoid: [B] PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER
Location : A triangular shaped muscle located on the superior aspect of the shoulder i.e. above the shoulder joint
It runs from the scapular and clavicle to attach at the humerus
Movements: Deltoid allows four basic movements.
They are:
1. Flexion of the shoulder
2. Extension of the shoulder
3. Abduction of the arm
4. Rotation of the shoulder
Application: Typical sporting actions include:
1. Throwing
2. Punching
3. Swimming
Deltoid

50. 3. Pectoralis Major: [B] PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER
Location : A large triangular muscle located on the chest.
It runs from the clavicle, sternum and the 6th rib, to the humerus.
Movements: Pectoralis major allows three basic movements.
These are:
1. Flexion of the shoulder
2. Abduction of the arm
3. Rotation (internal) of the shoulder
Application: Typical sporting actions include:
1. Throwing
2. Punching
3. Press-ups
Pectoralis major

51. 1. Biceps Brachii: [C] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ELBOW
Location : A two-headed muscle (biceps) located on the anterior aspect of the humerus
It runs from the scapular to the upper aspect of the radius
Movements: Biceps allows two basic movements.
They are:
1. Flexion of the elbow
2. Flexion of the shoulder
Application: Typical sporting actions include:
1. Biceps curl
2. Rowing
3. Recovery in breaststroke
Biceps Brachii

52. 1. Triceps Brachii: [C] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ELBOW
Location : A large muscle located on the posterior aspect
of the humerus.
It runs from the scapular, over the posterior aspect of the humerus, to the upper part of the ulna.
Movements: Triceps allows two basic movements.
These are:
1. Extension of the elbow
2. Extension of the shoulder
Application: Typical sporting actions include:
1. Karate chop
2. Press-up
3. Punching
Triceps Brachii

53. 1. Flexor digitorum: [D] PRIME MOVERS OF THE WRIST
Location : This is one of the main gripping muscles of the anterior aspect of the forearm.
It runs mainly from the proximal aspect of the radius and ulna, over the anterior of the forearm, to attach to the fingers.
Movements:
Flexor digitorum has two basic movements.
1. Flex the fingers (make a fist)
2. Flex the wrist
Application: Typical sporting actions include:
Punching
2. Hold a racquet
3. Wrist ‘dink; in a set shot (volleyball)
Flexor digitorum

54. 2. Extensor digitorum: [D] PRIME MOVERS OF THE WRIST
Location : This is one of the muscles in direct opposition to the flexor digitorum. It is located on the posterior aspect of the forearm.
It runs over the posterior of the forearm, to attach to the fingers.
Movements: Extensor digitorum allows two basic movements.
1. Extend the fingers
2. Extend the wrist
Application: Typical sporting actions :
1. Karate chop
2. Fending in tackling
3. Set shot in (volleyball)
Extensor
digitorum

55. 1. Illiopsoas: [E] PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE
Location : This is a group of three muscles located deep inside the hip region.
It runs from the lumbar vertebrae and pelvis to the upper femur.
Movements: Illiopsoas allows one basic movement.
This is:
1. Flexion of the hip
Application: Typical sporting actions include:
1. Kicking
2. Running
3. Cycling

56. 2. Gluteus Maximus: [E] PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE
Location : This is a the large fleshy muscle that makes up your backside. You are probably sitting on it right now! It is an extremely powerful muscle.
It is located on the posterior aspect of the hip running from the ilium (pelvis), sacrum and coccyx to the upper third of the femur.
Movements: Gluteus maximus
allows three basic movements.
1. Extension of the leg
2. Abduction of the leg
3. External rotation of the leg
(rotating outwards)
Application: Typical sporting actions include:
1. Kicking
2. Running
3. Jumping

57. 3. Quadriceps: [E] PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE
Location : This is a group of four (quad) muscles located on the anterior aspect of the thigh.
The four muscles making up the quadriceps group are:
1. Rectus femoris
2. Vastus medialis
3. Vastus lateralis
4. Vastus intermedius (not shown)
Movements: Quadriceps allows
two basic movements.
1. Extension of the knee
2. Flexion of the hip
Application: Typical sporting actions include:
Kicking
Running
Jumping
The Vastus intermedius is not shown because it lies under the Rectus femoris, so is not visible.

58. Consider the illustration
Consider the illustration. Label the muscles of the quadriceps group you can identify.
Rectus femoris
Vastus lateralis
Vastus Medialis

59. 3. Hamstrings: [E] PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE
Location : This is a group of three muscles located on the posterior aspect of the thigh.
Since they are in direct opposition to the quadriceps and are generally weaker they are prone to injury.
The three muscles making up the hamstrings group are:
1. Semitendinosus
2. Biceps femoris
3. Semimembranosis
Movements: Hamstrings allows two basic movements.
These are:
1. Extension of the hip
2. Flexion of the knee
Application: Typical sporting actions include:
1. Kicking
2. Running
3. Jumping

60. 1. Gastroncnemius: [F] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ANLKE
Location : This is a the large fleshy muscle located on the posterior aspect of the lower leg.
It runs from the distal aspect of the femur to the tarsal's (heel) via the Achilles tendon.
Movements: Gastrocnemius allows two basic movements.
These are:
1. Knee flexion
2. Plantar flexion
Application: Typical sporting actions include:
1. Kicking
2. Pointing toes
3. Jumping

61. 2. Soleus: [F] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ANLKE
Location : This muscle lies beneath gastrocnemius and serves largely the same function. It shares the Achilles tendon with gastrocnemius.
It runs from the proximal aspect of both tibia and fibula to the same position as gastrocnemius on the heel
Movements: Soleus allows one basic movements.
1. Plantar flexion
Application: Typical sporting actions
include:
1. Kicking
2. Pointing toes
3. Jumping

62. 3. Tibialis anterior: [F] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ANLKE
Location : This muscle is located on the anterior aspect of the lower leg.
It lies mainly over the tibia and can be felt running along its sharp edge.
It runs from the proximal aspect of the tibia to the toes.
Movements: Tibialis anterior allows two basic movements.
1. Dorsi flexion
2. Inversion
Application: Typical sporting actions include:
Passing with the outside
of the foot (soccer)
Kicking (recovery)
3. Rowing

63. 4.4 Agonists and Antagonists
When muscles create movement, they tend to work in pairs.
When one muscle (or group), contracts to generate the
movement, the opposing muscle (or group) relaxes.
This is known as Reciprocal Inhibition.
Each muscle in the pair is labelled as either the agonist or
antagonist.
Agonist:
The muscle that produces the movement.
Agonists are also referred to as prime movers. Why?
Because they are the main muscle producing movement (prime = main).
Antagonist:
This muscle that opposes motion

64. Consider the example of a bicep curl.
The movement occurring at the elbow is flexion
The agonist muscle would be biceps
The antagonist muscle would be triceps
The prime mover would be biceps
When the person extends the arm i.e. to lower the weight:
The agonist muscle would be triceps
The antagonist muscle would be biceps
What other role does the antagonist muscle play in the lowering of the weight?
Controls the speed at which weight is lowered in order to help prevent injury.