2. Inexpensive Scalable Information Access Many Internet applications need to access data for millions of concurrent users Relational DBMS technology cannot scale to these workloads using commodity hardware Need for low cost scalable DBMSs resulted in the advent of the key-value stores (e.g., Google’s Bigtable, Yahoo!’s PNUTS, and Amazon’s Dynamo)

3. Key-value Stores Scalability and availability is more important than rich functionality Scalability: Scale out to thousands of commodity servers Availability: Data replicated across data centers to ensure high availability of user data in the presence of failures

4. Key-value Data Model Primary abstraction is a table of rows or key-value pair Each row is identified by a unique key, and the value can vary in its structure – Keys are arbitrary strings which can be up to 64K bytes – Arbitrary number of columns per row – Arbitrary data type for each column (i.e., data validation done by applications) An interpreted binary string, i.e., a Blob Columns with their own attribute as in relational DBMSs Multiple versions of each row can be maintained and accessed through timestamps

5. From Needs to Constraints Retrieval – (row, column, timestamp) lookup only – In some systems, simple relational operations are supported such as selection and projection Update – Updates and deletes need to specify the primary key Atomicity – Atomic Read and write only possible at row level

6. Scalability & Fault Tolerance Consideration Logical entity can be effectively represented as a single row Each row typically resides in a single server, and data access is restricted to a single key  Application-level data manipulation is restricted to a single computer obviating the need for multi-server coordination and synchronization Rationale: (1) requests generally distributed throughout the data set, (2) impact of failure limited to the rows served by the failed server

7. Cluster Management – Master-based A centralized master server keeps track of all data servers using a highly fault-tolerant (FT) service This FT service keeps track of the data stored at the different servers When a data server fails, FT service reports this failure and the master can reassign the data to other servers If the master fails, a new master is elected to take over

8. Cluster Management – Decentralized Typically based on gossip messages exchanged among the servers continuously These messages contain relevant performance measurements The failure of a server is detected when a gossip message from that server is missing This approach is more fault tolerant; but it incurs message overhead

9. Google’s Bigtable Master Chubby node Tablet Server i Tablet Server j Tablet 1Tablet 2Tablet 3 GFS Chunk Server SSTable 1 SSTable 2 SSTable 3 SSTable 4 (replica) Tablet 4Tablet 5Tablet 6 GFS Chunk Server SSTable 4 SSTable 5 SSTable 6 SSTable 2 (replica) A table is a set of tablets A master server allocates tablets among tabet servers and is responsible for load balancing Logical view Physical layout A tablet is stored as a collection of SSTable files Tablet, logically represented as a key range, is the unit of distribution and load balancing Distributed file system

10. Tablets A logical table is divided into multiple tablets, each hold an interval of table rows Each tablet is stored in one or more SSTable files When a tablet grows beyond a certain size, it is split into two new tablets

11. Google’s Bigtable - Chubby Master Chubby node Tablet Server i Tablet Server j Tablet 1Tablet 2Tablet 3 GFS Chunk Server SSTable 1 SSTable 2 SSTable 3 SSTable 4 (replica) Tablet 4Tablet 5Tablet 6 GFS Chunk Server SSTable 4 SSTable 5 SSTable 6 SSTable 2 (replica) Logical view Physical layout A tablet is stored as a collection of SSTables Highly fault tolerant - consisting of five active replicas. Service is live when majority of replicas are running It is used for managing the tablet servers Replication is handled by GFS Determines which server to hold a tablet

12. Google’s Bigtable - Column Families Related columns stored in fixed number of families (the unit for data colocation and access at the storage layer) Permissions can be applied at family level to grant access to different applications

13. Google’s Bigtable - Chubby The master and every tablet server obtains a timed lease with Chubby that must be periodically renewed A server can carry out its responsibilities only if it has an active lease Every tablet server periodically reports to the master using heartbeat messages (that also contain the load statistics) Master detects failures based on the heartbeat messages and uses the statistics for load balancing

14. Google’s Bigtable – Server Failure Master Chubby node Tablet Server i Tablet Server j Tablet 1Tablet 2Tablet 3 GFS Chunk Server SSTable 1 SSTable 2 SSTable 3 SSTable 4 (replica) Tablet 4Tablet 5Tablet 6 GFS Chunk Server SSTable 4 SSTable 5 SSTable 6 SSTable 2 (replica) Logical view Physical layout If this server fails Tablet 4 Informs Server i to take over Tablet 4