1. 1 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Section 2 Atoms, Elements, Molecules, Ions, and Compounds

2. 2 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Atomic Theory of Matter Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory –All matter is composed of indivisible atoms. An atom is an extremely small particle of matter that retains its identity during chemical reactions. –An element is a type of matter composed of only one kind of atom, each atom of a given element having the same properties. Mass is one such property. Thus the atoms of a given element have a characteristic mass.

3. 3 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –A compound is a type of matter composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions. Atomic Theory of Matter Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory –The relative numbers of any two kinds of atoms in a compound occur in simple ratios. –Water, for example, consists of hydrogen and oxygen in a 2 to 1 ratio.

4. 4 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Atomic Theory of Matter Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory –A chemical reaction consists of the rearrangements of the atoms present in the reacting substances to give new chemical combinations present in the substances formed by the reaction (new chemical with different properties). –Atoms are not created, destroyed, or broken into smaller particles by any chemical reaction.

5. 5 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –Although Dalton postulated that atoms were indivisible, experiments at the beginning of the present century showed that atoms themselves consist of particles. Atomic Theory of Matter The Structure of the Atom –Experiments by Ernest Rutherford in 1910 showed that the atom was mostly “empty space.”

6. 6 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –These experiments showed that the atom consists of two kinds of particles: a nucleus, the atom’s central core, which is positively charged and contains most of the atom’s mass, and one or more electrons. Atomic Theory of Matter The structure of the atom –Electrons are very light, negatively charged particles that exist in the region around the atom’s positively charged nucleus.

7. 7 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –In 1897, the British physicist J. J. Thompson conducted a series of experiments that showed that atoms were not indivisible particles. Atomic Theory of Matter The structure of the atom –From his experiments, Thompson calculated the ratio of the electron’s mass, m e, to its electric charge, e.

8. 8 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –In 1909, U.S. physicist, Robert Millikan had obtained the charge on the electron. Atomic Theory of Matter The structure of the atom –These two discoveries combined provided us with the electron’s mass of 9.109 x 10 -31 kg, which is more than 1800 times smaller than the mass of the lightest atom (hydrogen). –These experiments showed that the electron was indeed a subatomic particle.

9. 9 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Atomic Theory of Matter The nuclear model of the atom. –Ernest Rutherford, a British physicist, put forth the idea of the nuclear model of the atom in 1911, based on experiments done in his laboratory by Hans Geiger and Ernest Morrison. –Rutherford’s famous gold leaf experiment gave credibility to the theory that the majority of the mass of the atom was concentrated in a very small nucleus.

10. 10 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –The nucleus of an atom is composed of two different kinds of particles: protons and neutrons. Atomic Theory of Matter Nuclear structure; Isotopes. –An important property of the nucleus is its positive electric charge.

11. 11 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –A proton is the nuclear particle having a positive charge equal to that of the electron’s (a “unit” charge) and a mass more than 1800 times that of the electron’s. –The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as its atomic number (Z). Atomic Theory of Matter Nuclear structure; Isotopes

12. 12 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –An element is a substance whose atoms all have the same atomic number. Atomic Theory of Matter Nuclear structure; Isotopes –The neutron is a nuclear particle having a mass almost identical to that of a proton, but no electric charge. –Summary of masses and charges of the three fundamental particles:

13. 13 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –The mass number (A) is the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Nuclear structure; Isotopes –A nuclide is an atom characterized by a definite atomic number and mass number. –The shorthand notation for a nuclide consists of its symbol with the atomic number as a subscript on the left and its mass number as a superscript on the left.

14. 14 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. What is the nuclide symbol for a nucleus that consists of 17 protons, 18 neutrons, and 17 electrons? How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in the following nucleus HW 9 & 10

15. 15 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –The fractional abundance is the fraction of a sample of atoms that is composed of a particular isotope. –Isotopes are atoms whose nuclei have the same atomic number (Z) but different mass numbers (A); that is, the nuclei have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Atomic Theory of Matter Nuclear structure; Isotopes –Chlorine, for example, exists as two isotopes: chlorine-35 and chlorine-37.

16. 16 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Atomic Weights Calculate the atomic weight of boron, B, from the following data: ISOTOPE ISOTOPIC MASS (amu) FRACTIONAL ABUNDANCE B-10 10.013 0.1978 (19.78%) B-11 11.009 0.8022 (80.22%) B-10: 10.013 amu x 0.1978 = 1.9805 B-11: 11.009 amu x 0.8022 = 8.8314 10.8119 = 10.812 amu ( = atomic wt.) HW 11

17. 17 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –Since Dalton could not weigh individual atoms, he devised experiments to measure their masses relative to the hydrogen atom. Atomic Weights Dalton’s Relative Atomic Masses –Hydrogen was chosen as it was believed to be the lightest element. Daltons assigned hydrogen a mass of 1. –For example, he found that carbon weighed 12 times more than hydrogen. He therefore assigned carbon a mass of 12.

18. 18 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –Dalton’s atomic weight scale was eventually replaced in 1961, by the present carbon–12 mass scale. Atomic Weights Dalton’s Relative Atomic Masses –One atomic mass unit (amu) is, therefore, a mass unit equal to exactly 1/12 the mass of a carbon–12 atom. –On this modern scale, the atomic weight of an element is the average atomic mass for the naturally occurring element, expressed in atomic mass units.

19. 19 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. The Periodic Table In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev discovered that if the known elements were arranged in order of atomic mass (A), they could be placed in horizontal rows such that the elements in the vertical columns had similar properties. –periodic table - tabular arrangement of elements in rows and columns, highlighting the regular repetition of properties of the elements. –periodic law – states that certain sets of physical and chemical properties recur at regular intervals (periodically) when the elements are arranged according to increasing atomic number (Z).

20. 20 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –A period consists of the elements in one horizontal row of the periodic table. The Periodic Table Periods and Groups –A group consists of the elements in any one column of the periodic table. –The groups are usually numbered. –The eight “A” groups are called main group (or representative) elements.

21. 21 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Figure: A modern form of the periodic table.

22. 22 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –The “B” groups are called transition elements. The Periodic Table Periods and Groups –The two rows of elements at the bottom of the table are called inner transition elements. –Elements in any one group have similar properties.

23. 23 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –The elements in group IA, often known as the alkali metals, are soft metals that react easily with water. The Periodic Table Periods and Groups –The group VIIA elements, known as the halogens, are also reactive elements.

24. 24 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –A metal is a substance or mixture that has a characteristic luster and is generally a good conductor of heat and electricity. Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids –A nonmetal is an element that does not exhibit the characteristics of the metal. –A metalloid, or semi-metal, is an element having both metallic and nonmetallic properties. HW 12

25. 25 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Chemical Formulas; Molecular and Ionic Substances The chemical formula of a substance is a notation using atomic symbols with subscripts to convey the relative proportions of atoms of the different elements in a substance. –aluminum oxide, Al 2 O 3 –sodium chloride, NaCl –calcium nitrate, Ca(NO 3 ) 2

26. 26 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –A molecule is a definite group of atoms that are chemically bonded together through sharing of electrons (covalent bonding, generally nonmetal- nonmetal including H). Chemical Formulas; Molecular and Ionic Substances Molecular substances –A molecular substance is a substance that is composed of molecules, all of which are alike. –A molecular formula gives the exact number of atoms of elements in a molecule (i.e. C 2 H 6 O ). –Structural formulas show how the atoms are bonded to one another in a molecule. i.e. ethanol, CH 3 CH 2 OH

27. 27 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –Although many substances are molecular, others are composed of ions (charged particles, transfer of electrons, ionic bonding, generally metal-nonmetal). Ionic substances –An ion is an electrically charged particle obtained from an atom or chemically bonded group of atoms by adding or removing electrons. –Sodium chloride is a substance made up of ions.

28. 28 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –The formula of an ionic compound is written by giving the smallest possible whole-number ratio of different ions in the substance. Chemical Formulas; Molecular and Ionic Substances Ionic substances –The formula unit of the substance is the group of atoms or ions explicitly symbolized by its formula.

29. 29 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –When an atom gains extra electrons, it becomes a negatively charged ion, called an anion (more electrons than protons). Ionic substances –An atom that loses electrons becomes a positively charged ion, called a cation (more protons than electrons).. –An ionic compound is a compound composed of cations and anions.NaCl CaBr 2 Na 2 SO 4 CO 2

30. 30 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Ions in Aqueous Solution Many ionic compounds (ionic bond/m-nm) dissociate into independent ions when disolved in water NaCl (s)  Na + (aq) + Cl - (aq) Soluble ionic compounds dissociate 100% - referred to as strong electrolytes – breaks into charged particles

31. 31 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Ions in Aqueous Solution Most molecular (covalent bond/nm-nm) compounds dissolve but do not dissociate into ions, exception acids. C 6 H 12 O 6 (s)  C 6 H 12 O 6 (aq) These compounds are referred to as nonelectrolytes; no charged particles; soluble but no ions formed.

32. 32 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –Chemical compounds are classified as organic or inorganic. Chemical Substances; Formulas and Names Naming simple compounds –Organic compounds are compounds that contain carbon combined with other elements, such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. –Inorganic compounds are compounds composed of elements other than carbon.

33. 33 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –An important class of molecular substances that contain carbon is the organic compounds. Chemical Formulas; Molecular and Ionic Substances Organic compounds –Organic compounds make up the majority of all known compounds. –The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons - compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon. –Common examples include methane, CH 4, ethane, C 2 H 6, and propane, C 3 H 8.

34. 34 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –Most ionic compounds contain metal and nonmetal atoms; for example, NaCl. Chemical Substances; Formulas and Names Ionic compounds –You name an ionic compound by giving the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion. Sodium chloride, NaCl Calcium Iodide, CaI 2 Potassium Bromide, KBr –A monatomic ion is an ion formed from a single atom. –text lists some common monatomic ions of the main group elements.

35. 35 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –Most of the main group metals form cations with the charge equal to their group number. How get charge for ions? Rules for predicting charges on monatomic ions –The charge on a monatomic anion for a nonmetal equals the group number minus 8. –Most transition elements form more than one ion, each with a different charge (exceptions Cd 2+, Zn 2+, Ag + ?). –Other important elements with variable charge Pb 4+, Pb 2+ Sn 4+, Sn 2+ As 5+, As 3+ Sb 5+, Sb 3+

36. 36 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –Monatomic cations are named after the element. For example, Al 3+ is called the aluminum ion. Rules for naming monatomic ions –If there is more than one cation of an element (charge), a Roman numeral in parentheses denoting the charge on the ion is used. This often occurs with transition elements. Na + sodium ionCa 2+ calcium ion Fe 2+ iron (II) ionFe 3+ iron (III) ion Older name: higher ox state (charge) – ic, / lower, -ous Fe 3+ ferric ion Fe 2+ ferrous ion Cu 2+ cupric ion Cu + cuprous ion Hg 2+ mercuric ion Hg 2 2+ mercurous ion The names of the monatomic anions use the stem name of the element followed by the suffix – ide. For example, Br - is called the bromide ion. Br bromine

37. 37 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. The formula of an ionic compound is written by giving the smallest possible whole-number ratio of different ions in the substance. Sodium chloride Na + Cl - Iron (III) sulfate Fe 3+ SO 4 2- Chromium (III) oxide Cr 3+ O 2- Calcium nitrate Ca 2+ NO 3 - Sodium phosphate Na + PO 4 3- Strontium oxide Sr 2+ O 2-

38. 38 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Naming Binary Compounds NaF- -Lithium chloride MgO- MnBr 2 - -Cobalt (III) oxide -Copper (II) chloride HW 13 &14

39. 39 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –A polyatomic ion is an ion consisting of two or more atoms chemically bonded together and carrying a net electric charge. –Text lists some common polyatomic ions. Most are oxo anions – consists of oxygen with another element (central element). Chemical Substances; Formulas and Names Polyatomic ions Most groups –ate, -ite differ by O Mn, Br, Cl, I per- -ate, -ate, -ite, hypo- -ite

40. 40 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Ions You Should Know Polyatomic ions NH 4 + - Ammonium OH - - Hydroxide CN - - Cyanide SO 4 2- - Sulfate SO 3 2- - Sulfite ClO 4 - - perchlorate ClO 3 - - chlorate ClO 2 - - chlorite ClO - - hypochlorite Hg 2 2+ - mercury (I) or mecurous S 2 O 3 2- - thiosulfate SCN - - thiocyanate CNO - - cyanate MnO 4 - - permanganate O 2 2- - Peroxide PO 4 3- - Phosphate PO 3 3- - Phosphite CO 3 2- - Carbonate HCO 3 - - Bicarbonate or Hydrogen Carbonate N 3 - - azide NO 3 - - nitrate NO 2 - - nitrite C 2 H 3 O 2 - - acetate Cr 2 O 7 2- - dichromate CrO 4 2- - chromate C 2 O 4 2- - oxalate HSO 4 - - bisulfate or hydrogen sulfate H 2 PO 4 - - dihydrogen phosphate HW 15

41. 41 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. SnSO 4 sodium sulfite Ca(ClO) 2 barium hydroxide potassium perchlorate Cr 2 (SO 4 ) 3 magnesium nitride Fe 3 (PO 4 ) 2 titanium (IV) nitrate HW 16

42. 42 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. molecular compounds –Binary compounds composed of two nonmetals are usually molecular and are named using a prefix system (name same as ionic except must indicate how many atoms are present using mono, di, tri, etc.). No charges involved with molecular compounds but we typically put more metallic compound first. Chemical Substances; Formulas and Names

43. 43 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –The name of the compound has the elements in the order given in the formula. Binary molecular compounds –You name the first element using the exact element name. –Name the second element by writing the stem name of the element with the suffix “–ide.” –If there is more than one atom of any given element, you add a prefix. Text lists the Greek prefixes used. Chemical Substances; Formulas and Names

44. 44 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Binary molecular compounds –N2O3–N2O3 –SF 4 – chlorine dioxide – sulfur hexafluoride –Cl 2 O 7 –HCl (g) Older names: water - H 2 O, ammonia – NH 3, hydrogen sulfide – H 2 S, nitric oxide – NO, hydrazine – N 2 H 4 HW 17

45. 45 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –Acids are traditionally defined as compounds with a potential H + as the cation. Acids –Binary acids consist of a hydrogen ion and any single anion. For example, HCl is hydrochloric acid. –An oxoacid is an acid containing hydrogen, oxygen, and another element. An example is HNO 3, nitric acid. –Text lists some oxoanions and their oxoacids. Chemical Substances; Formulas and Names

46. 46 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. oxoacids Anion prefix/suffixacid prefix/suffic per- -ate ionper- -ic acid -ate ion -ic acid -ite ion -ous acid hypo- -ite ionhypo- -ous acid NO 3 - nitrate ionHNO 3 nitric acid NO 2 - nitrite ionHNO 2 nitrous acid ClO 4 - perchlorate ionHClO 4 perchloric acid HW 18

47. 47 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –A hydrate is a compound that contains water molecules weakly bound in its crystals. Chemical Substances; Formulas and Names Hydrates –Hydrates are named from the anhydrous (dry) compound, followed by the word “hydrate” with a prefix to indicate the number of water molecules per formula unit of the compound. –For example, CuSO 4. 5H 2 O is known as copper(II)sulfate pentahydrate. Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate

48. 48 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –The reactants (consumed) are starting substances in a chemical reaction. The arrow means “yields.” The formulas on the right side of the arrow represent the products (produced). –A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in terms of chemical formulas. Chemical Reactions: Equations Writing chemical equations –For example, the burning of sodium and chlorine to produce sodium chloride is written

49. 49 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –In many cases, it is useful to indicate the states of the substances in the equation (s, g, l, aq). –When you use these labels, the previous equation becomes Chemical Reactions: Equations Writing chemical equations

50. 50 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. –The law of conservation of mass dictates that the total number of atoms of each element on both sides of a chemical equation must match. The equation is then said to be balanced. Chemical Reactions: Equations Writing chemical equations

51. 51 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Chemical Reactions: Equations HW 19

52. 52 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Classifying Compounds Organic vs. Inorganic in the18 th century, compounds from living things were called organic; compounds from the nonliving environment were called inorganic organic compounds easily decomposed and could not be made in 18 th century lab inorganic compounds very difficult to decompose, but able to be synthesized

53. 53 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Modern Classifying Compounds Organic vs. Inorganic today we commonly make organic compounds in the lab and find them all around us organic compounds are mainly made of C and H, sometimes with O, N, P, S, and trace amounts of other elements the main element that is the focus of organic chemistry is carbon

54. 54 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Carbon Bonding carbon atoms bond almost exclusively covalently –compounds with ionic bonding C are generally inorganic when C bonds, it forms 4 covalent bonds –4 single bonds, 2 double bonds, 1 triple + 1 single, etc. carbon is unique in that it can form limitless chains of C atoms, both straight and branched, and rings of C atoms

55. 55 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Carbon Bonding

56. 56 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Classifying Organic Compounds there are two main categories of organic compounds, hydrocarbons and functionalized hydrocarbons hydrocarbons contain only C and H most fuels are mixtures of hydrocarbons

57. 57 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Classifying Hydrocarbons hydrocarbons containing only single bonds are called alkanes hydrocarbons containing one or more C=C are called alkenes hydrocarbons containing one or more C  C are called alkynes hydrocarbons containing C 6 “benzene” ring are called aromatic

58. 58 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline.

59. 59 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Naming Straight Chain Hydrocarbons consists of a base name to indicate the number of carbons in the chain, with a suffix to indicate the class and position of multiple bonds –suffix –ane for alkane, –ene for alkene, –yne for alkyne Base NameNo. of CBase NameNo. of C meth-1hex-6 eth-2hept-7 prop-3oct-8 but-4non-9 pent-5dec-10

60. 60 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Functionalized Hydrocarbons functional groups are non-carbon groups that are on the molecule substitute one or more functional groups replacing H’s on the hydrocarbon chain generally, the chemical reactions of the compound are determined by the kinds of functional groups on the molecule

61. 61 Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline. Functional Groups