1. Chapter 15 Fluids and Elasticity
Chapter Goal: To understand macroscopic systems that flow or deform.
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2. Chapter 15 Preview
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3. Chapter 15 Preview
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4. Chapter 15 Preview
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5. Chapter 15 Preview
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6. Chapter 15 Preview
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7. Chapter 15 Preview
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8. Gases
A gas is a system in which each molecule moves through space as a free particle until, on occasion, it collides with another molecule or with the wall of the container.
Gases are fluids; they flow, and exert pressure.
Gases are compressible; the volume of a gas is easily increased or decreased.
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9. Liquids Liquids are fluids; they flow, and exert pressure.
Liquids are incompressible; the volume of a liquid is not easily increased or decreased.
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10. Volume An important parameter of a macroscopic system is its volume V.
The S.I. unit of volume is m3.
Some unit conversions:
1 m3 = 1000 L
1L = 1000 cm3
1m3 = 106 cm3
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11. Density
The ratio of an object’s or material’s mass to its volume is called the mass density, or sometimes simply “the density.”
The SI units of mass density are kg/m3.
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12. QuickCheck 15.1
A piece of glass is broken into two pieces of different size. How do their densities compare?
1 > 3 > 2.
1 = 3 = 2.
1 < 3 < 2.
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13. QuickCheck 15.1
A piece of glass is broken into two pieces of different size. How do their densities compare?
1 > 3 > 2.
1 = 3 = 2.
1 < 3 < 2.
Density characterizes the substance itself, not particular pieces of the substance.
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14. Densities of Various Fluids
Osmium is the element with the highest density.
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15. Example 15.1 Weighing the Air
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16. Pressure What is “pressure”?
Consider a container of water with 3 small holes drilled in it.
Pressure pushes the water sideways, out of the holes.
In this liquid, it seems the pressure is larger at greater depths.
Conservation of energy,
Mgh = 0.5 mv^2
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17. Pressure
A fluid in a container presses with an outward force against the walls of that container.
The pressure is defined as the ratio of the force to the area on which the force is exerted.
The SI units of pressure are N/m2, also defined as the pascal, where 1 pascal = 1 Pa = 1 N/m2.
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18. Learning About Pressure
FACTS about PRESSURE
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19. Pressures in Gases
The pressure in a gas is due to the net force of the molecules colliding with the walls.
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20. Pressure
There are two contributions to the pressure in a container of fluid:
A gravitational contribution, due to gravity pulling down on the liquid or gas.
A thermal contribution, due to the collisions of freely moving gas molecules within the walls, which depends on gas temperature.
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21. Atmospheric Pressure
The global average sea-level pressure is 101,300 Pa. Consequently we define the standard atmosphere as
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22. Pressure
If you hold out your arm, which has a surface area of about 200 cm3, the atmospheric pressure on the top of your arm is  2000 N, or about 450 pounds.
How can you even lift your arm?
The reason is that a fluid exerts pressure forces in all directions.
The air underneath your arm exerts an upward force of the same magnitude, so the net force is close to zero.
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23. Example 15.2 A Suction Cup
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24. Example 15.2 A Suction Cup
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25. Example 15.2 A Suction Cup
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26. Example 15.2 A Suction Cup
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27. Pressure in Liquids
The shaded cylinder of liquid in the figure, like the rest of the liquid, is in static equilibrium with
Balancing the forces in the free-body diagram:
net = 0
The volume of the cylinder is V = Ad and its mass is m = Ad.
Solving for pressure:
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28. Example 15.3 The Pressure on a Submarine
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29. Liquids in Hydrostatic Equilibrium
No!
A connected liquid in hydrostatic equilibrium rises to the same height in all open regions of the container.
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30. QuickCheck 15.2
What can you say about the pressures at points 1 and 2?
p1 > p2.
p1 = p2.
p1 < p2.
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31. QuickCheck 15.2
What can you say about the pressures at points 1 and 2?
p1 > p2.
p1 = p2.
p1 < p2.
Hydrostatic pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal line through a connected fluid.
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32. Liquids in Hydrostatic Equilibrium
No!
The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal line through a connected liquid in hydrostatic equilibrium.
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33. QuickCheck 15.3
An iceberg floats in a shallow sea. What can you say about the pressures at points 1 and 2?
p1 > p2.
p1 = p2.
p1 < p2.
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34. QuickCheck 15.3
An iceberg floats in a shallow sea. What can you say about the pressures at points 1 and 2?
p1 > p2.
p1 = p2.
p1 < p2.
Hydrostatic pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal line through a connected fluid.
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35. Example 15.4 Pressure in a Closed Tube
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36. Example 15.4 Pressure in a Closed Tube
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37. Example 15.4 Pressure in a Closed Tube
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38. Example 15.4 Pressure in a Closed Tube
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39. QuickCheck 15.4
What can you say about the pressures at points 1, 2, and 3?
p1 = p2 = p3.
p1 = p2 > p3.
p3 > p1 = p2.
p3 > p1 > p2.
p1 = p3 > p2.
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40. QuickCheck 15.4
What can you say about the pressures at points 1, 2, and 3?
p1 = p2 = p3.
p1 = p2 > p3.
p3 > p1 = p2.
p3 > p1 > p2.
p1 = p3 > p2.
Hydrostatic pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal line through a connected fluid.
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41. Gauge Pressure
Many pressure gauges, such as tire gauges and the gauges on air tanks, measure not the actual or absolute pressure p but what is called gauge pressure pg.
where 1 atm = kPa.
A tire-pressure gauge reads the gauge pressure pg, not the absolute pressure p.
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42. Example 15.5 An Underwater Pressure Gauge
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43. Manometers
The figure shows a manometer: a U-shaped tube connected to the gas at one end and open to air at the other.
The tube is filled with liquid mercury of density .
Steps 1-3 from Tactics Box 15.1 are shown.
Since p1 = p2:
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44. Example 15.6 Using a Manometer
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45. Barometers
Figure (a) shows a glass tube, sealed at the bottom and filled with liquid.
We seal the top end, invert the tube, place it in an open container of the same liquid, and remove the seal.
This device, shown in figure (b), is a barometer.
We measure the height h of the liquid in the tube.
Since p1 = p2:
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46. Pressure Units
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47. Human Blood Pressure During One Cycle of a Heartbeat
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48. The Hydraulic Lift
Consider a hydraulic lift, such as the one that lifts your car at the repair shop.
The system is in static equilibrium if:
Force-multiplying factor
If h is small, negligible
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49. The Hydraulic Lift Suppose we need to lift the car higher.
If piston 1 is pushed down a distance d1, the car is lifted higher by a distance d2:
Work is done on the liquid by the small force; work is done by the liquid when it lifts the heavy weight.
What about PE grav of the liquid!!!
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50. Example 15.7 Lifting a Car
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51. Example 15.7 Lifting a Car
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52. Buoyancy Consider a cylinder submerged in a liquid.
The pressure in the liquid increases with depth.
Both cylinder ends have equal area, so Fup > Fdown.
The pressure in the liquid exerts a net upward force on the cylinder:
Fnet = Fup – Fdown.
This is the buoyant force.
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53. Buoyancy
The buoyant force on an object is the same as the buoyant force on the fluid it displaces.
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54. Buoyancy
When an object (or portion of an object) is immersed in a fluid, it displaces fluid.
The displaced fluid’s volume equals the volume of the portion of the object that is immersed in the fluid.
Suppose the fluid has density f and the object displaces volume Vf of fluid.
Archimedes’ principle in equation form is:
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55. QuickCheck 15.5
A heavy lead block and a light aluminum block of equal sizes are both submerged in water. Upon which is the buoyant force greater?
On the lead block.
On the aluminum block.
They both experience the same buoyant force.
Answer: C. They both displace the same volume of water so the buoyant force on each is the same.
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56. QuickCheck 15.5
A heavy lead block and a light aluminum block of equal sizes are both submerged in water. Upon which is the buoyant force greater?
On the lead block.
On the aluminum block.
They both experience the same buoyant force.
Answer: C. They both displace the same volume of water so the buoyant force on each is the same.
Same size  both displace the same volume and weight of water.
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57. Example 15.8 Holding a Block of Wood Underwater
VISUALIZE
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58. Example 15.8 Holding a Block of Wood Underwater
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59. Tactics: Finding Whether an Object Floats or Sinks
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60. Tactics: Finding Whether an Object Floats or Sinks
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61. Tactics: Finding Whether an Object Floats or Sinks
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62. QuickCheck 15.6
Two blocks are of identical size. One is made of lead and sits on the bottom of a pond; the other is of wood and floats on top. Upon which is the buoyant force greater?
On the lead block.
On the wood block.
They both experience the same buoyant force.
Answer: A. The lead block, which is completely submerged, displaces a greater volume of water than the floating wood block.
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63. QuickCheck 15.6
Two blocks are of identical size. One is made of lead and sits on the bottom of a pond; the other is of wood and floats on top. Upon which is the buoyant force greater?
On the lead block.
On the wood block.
They both experience the same buoyant force.
Answer: A. The lead block, which is completely submerged, displaces a greater volume of water than the floating wood block.
The fully submerged lead block displaces more much water than the wood block.
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64. A Floating Object
The volume of fluid displaced by a floating object of uniform density is:
The volume of the displaced fluid is less than the volume of the uniform-density object:
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65. A Floating Object
Most icebergs break off glaciers and are fresh-water ice with a density of 917 kg/m3.
The density of seawater is 1030 kg/m3.
89% of the volume of an iceberg is underwater!
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66. QuickCheck 15.7 Which floating block is most dense? Block a. Block b.
Block c.
Blocks a and b are tied.
Blocks b and c are tied.
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67. QuickCheck 15.7 Which floating block is most dense? Block a. Block b.
Block c.
Blocks a and b are tied.
Blocks b and c are tied.
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68. QuickCheck 15.8
Blocks a, b, and c are all the same size. Which experiences the largest buoyant force?
Block a.
Block b.
Block c.
All have the same buoyant force.
Blocks a and c have the same buoyant force, but the buoyant force on block b is different.
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69. QuickCheck 15.8
Blocks a, b, and c are all the same size. Which experiences the largest buoyant force?
Block a.
Block b.
Block c.
All have the same buoyant force.
Blocks a and c have the same buoyant force, but the buoyant force on block b is different.
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70. Boats The figure shows a basic model of a boat.
The boat will float if the weight of the displaced water equals the weight of the boat.
The minimum height of the sides is:
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71. Fluid Dynamics
The ideal-fluid model provides a good description of fluid flow in many situations.
This model consists of three assumptions:
The fluid is incompressible; it is more like a liquid than a gas.
The fluid is nonviscous; it is more like water than syrup.
The flow is steady; it is more like laminar flow than turbulent flow.
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72. Fluid Dynamics
The rising smoke in the photograph begins as laminar flow, but at some point undergoes a transition to turbulent flow.
The ideal-fluid model can be applied to the laminar flow, but not to the turbulent flow.
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73. Fluid Dynamics
The laminar airflow around a car in a wind tunnel is made visible with smoke.
Each smoke trail represents a streamline.
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74. Fluid Dynamics
Comparing two points in a flow tube of cross section A1 and A2, we may use the equation of continuity:
where v1 and v2 are the fluid speeds at the two points.
This is because the volume flow rate Q, in m3/s, is constant:
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75. QuickCheck 15.9
Water flows from left to right through this pipe. What can you say about the speed of the water at points 1 and 2?
v1 > v2.
v1 = v2.
v1 < v2.
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76. QuickCheck 15.9
Water flows from left to right through this pipe. What can you say about the speed of the water at points 1 and 2?
v1 > v2.
v1 = v2.
v1 < v2.
Continuity: v1A1 = v2A2
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77. Bernoulli’s Equation
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78. Bernoulli’s Equation The energy equation for fluid in a flow tube is:
An alternative form of Bernoulli’s equation is:
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79. Bernoulli’s Equation Try this simple experiment! What happened?
As the air speed above the strip of paper increases, the pressure has to decrease to keep the quantity p + ½rv2 + rgy constant.
The air pressure above the strip is less than the air pressure below the strip, resulting in a net upward force on the paper.
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80. QuickCheck 15.10
Gas flows from left to right through this pipe, whose interior is hidden. At which point does the pipe have the smallest inner diameter?
Point a.
Point b.
Point c.
The diameter doesn’t change.
Not enough information to tell.
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81. QuickCheck 15.10
Gas flows from left to right through this pipe, whose interior is hidden. At which point does the pipe have the smallest inner diameter?
Point a.
Point b.
Point c.
The diameter doesn’t change.
Not enough information to tell.
Smallest pressure fastest speed smallest diameter
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82. Example 15.11 An Irrigation System
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83. Example 15.11 An Irrigation System
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84. Example 15.11 An Irrigation System
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85. Example 15.11 An Irrigation System
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86. Venturi Tubes
Venturi tubes measure gas speeds in environments as different as chemistry laboratories, wind tunnels, and jet engines.
The gas-flow speed can be determined from the liquid height h.
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87. Elasticity
Suppose you clamp one end of a solid rod while using a strong machine to pull on the other end, as shown in figure (a).
Figure (b) shows graphically the amount of force needed to stretch the rod.
In the elastic region:
where k is the slope of the graph.
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88. Elasticity
F/A is proportional to L/L. We can write the proportionality as:
The proportionality constant Y is called Young’s modulus.
The quantity F/A is called the tensile stress.
The quantity L/L, the fractional increase in length, is called strain:
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89. Elastic Properties of Various Materials
Concrete is a widely used building material because it is relatively inexpensive and, with its large Young’s modulus, it has tremendous compressional strength.
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90. Example 15.13 Stretching a Wire
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91. QuickCheck 15.11
Bars A and B are attached to a wall on the left and pulled with equal forces to the right. Bar B, with twice the radius, is stretched half as far as bar A. Which has the larger value of Young’s modulus Y?
YA > YB.
YA = YB.
YA < YB.
Not enough information to tell.
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92. QuickCheck 15.11
Bars A and B are attached to a wall on the left and pulled with equal forces to the right. Bar B, with twice the radius, is stretched half as far as bar A. Which has the larger value of Young’s modulus Y?
YA > YB.
YA = YB.
YA < YB.
Not enough information to tell. F A = Y D L
Area of B increases by 4. If YB = YA, stretch would be only L/4. Stretch of L/2 means B is “softer” than A.
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93. Volume Stress and the Bulk Modulus
A volume stress applied to an object compresses its volume slightly.
The volume strain is defined as V/V, and is negative when the volume decreases.
Volume stress is the same as the pressure.
where B is called the bulk modulus. The negative sign in the equation ensures that the pressure is a positive number.
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