1. Approach to Pleural Effusion Dr Abdalla Elfateh Ibrahim King Saud University

3. Pleural Effusion Pleural effusions are a common medical problem with more than 50 recognized causes including disease local to the pleura or underlying lung, systemic conditions, organ dysfunction and drugs It occur as a result of increased fluid formation and/or reduced fluid resorption. The precise pathophysiology of fluid accumulation varies according to underlying aetiologies.

4. Mechanism Increase permeability Increase pulmonary capillary pressure Decrease negative pleural pressure Decrease oncotic pressure Obstructed lymphatics

5. Types of pleural effusions Transudates pleural fluid proteins < 30 OR Exudates pleural fluid proteins >30

6. Causes of pleural effusion Transudates Very Common causes Heart failure Liver cirrhosis

7. Transudates Less Common causes Hypoalbuminaemia Peritoneal dialysis Hypothyroidism Nephrotic syndrome Mitral Stenosis

8. Causes of pleural exudates Common causes Malignancy Parapneumonic effusions Tuberculosis

9. Exudates Less Common causes Pulmonary embolism Rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune pleuritis Benign Asbestos effusion Pancreatitis Post-myocardial infarction Post CABG

10. Exudates Rare causes Yellow nail syndrome (and other lymphatic disorders Drugs Fungal infections

11. Clinical assessment and history Through history and physical examination.

12. Symptoms Asymptomatic Breathlessness Chest pain Cough Fever

13. Approximately 75% of patients with pulmonary embolism and pleural effusion have a history of pleuritic pain. Less than a third of the hemithorax Dyspnoea is often out of proportion to the size of the effusion

14. History The drug history is important. Although uncommon, a number of medications have been reported to cause exudative pleural effusions. (mesotruxate, Amiodarone Phenytoin, Nitrofurantoin and Beta- blockers )>100 cases reported globally An occupational history including details about known or suspected asbestos exposure and potential secondary exposure via parents or spouses should be documented.

15. Signs Decrease expansion Dull percusion node Decrease vocal resonance Decrease air entry Signs of associated disease (for example :chronic liver disease-CCF- nephrotic syndrome -SLE-RA-Ca lung)

16. DIAGNOSIS CXR PLEURAL ASPIRATION PLEURAL BIOPSY Medical thoracoscopy CT scan VAT Bronchoscopy

19. CXR

23. Diagnostic Imaging

26. Pleural aspiration The initial step in assessing a pleural effusion is to ascertain whether the effusion is a transudate or exudate Aspiration should not be performed for bilateral effusions in a clinical setting strongly suggestive of a transudate, unless there are atypical features or they fail to respond to therapy

27. Pleural aspiration A diagnostic tap, with a fine bore (21G) needle and a 50mL syringe Bedside ultrasound guidance is recommended for all diagnostic aspirations Send for protein, LDH, pH, Gram stain, cytology and microbiological culture. Up to 50ml pleural fluid should be sent for cytological examination.

28. Pleural aspiration A green needle (21G). Aspirated fluid should immediately be drawn into a blood gas syringe Biochemical (2-5 ml) Gram-stained is necessary for all fluids and particularly when pleural infection is suspected (microbiology 5ml) 50ml for cytological examination

29. Pleural effusion appearance and odour should be noted. (colour usually Straw colour -normal) Smell, unpleasant aroma of anaerobic infection may guide antibiotic The appearance may be serous blood tinged or frankly bloody -

30. Appearance Milky fluid Empyaema Chylothorax PesudChylothoraxI

31. Centrifuging turbid or milky pleural fluid will distinguish between empyema and lipid effusions. If the supernatant is clear then the turbid fluid was due to empyema If it is still turbid -chylothorax OR - pseudochylothorax

32. Appearance Grossly bloody pleural fluid is usually due to; malignancy, pulmonary embolus with infarction, trauma, benign asbestos pleural effusions or post- cardiac injury syndrome A haemothorax can be distinguished from other blood stained effusions by performing a haematocrit on the pleural fluid. A pleural fluid haematocrit is greater than 50% of the patient's peripheral blood haematocrit, is diagnostic of a haemothorax

33. Fluid Suspected disease Putrid odour Anaerobic empyema Food particles Oesophageal rupture Bile stained Cholothorax (biliary fistula) Milky Chylothorax/Pseudochylothorax ‘Anchovy sauce’ like fluid Ruptured amoebic abscess

34. Differentiating between a pleural fluid exudate and transudate Protein of > 30g/l an exudate Protein of <30 g/l a transudate. When protein is close to 30g/l (25-30)

35. Light's criteria Exudates if one or more of the following: Pleural fluid protein divided by serum protein is greater than 0.5 Pleural fluid LDH divided by serum LDH is greater than 0.6 Pleural fluid LDH > 2/3 the upper limits of laboratory normal value for serum LDH.

36. How accurate is Light ’ s criteria ? In CCF diuretic therapy increases the concentration of protein, LDH and lipids in pleural fluid In this context Light's criteria is recognized to misclassify a significant proportion of effusions as exudates. Clinical judgment should be used Measurement of NT-pro-BNP can be useful.

37. Other tests Glucose < 3.3 mmol/l ? Infection PH <7.2 empyaema Amylase pancreatic ca,rupture oesophagus Rheumatoid factor RA ANA SLE Complement level (reduced in SLE,RA,Ca)

38. Pleural fluid differential cell counts Cell proportions are helpful in narrowing the differential diagnosis but none are disease specific When any effusion becomes long standing it tends to be populated by lymphocytes (and neutrophils fade away). Pleural malignancy, cardiac failure and tuberculosis are common specific causes

39. pH Pleural fluid pH should be measured in non- purulent effusions providing that appropriate collection technique can be observed and a blood gas analyser is available. Inclusion of air or local anaesthetic in samples may significantly alter the pH results and should be avoided. In a parapneumonic effusion, a pH <7.2 indicates the need for tube drainage

40. PH In clinical practice, the most important use for pleural fluid pH is aiding the decision to treat pleural infection with tube drainage.

41. Pleural effusion cells(cont.) Neutrophil are associated with acute processes. parapneumonic effusions: pulmonary embolism, acute TB and benign asbestos Eosinophils greater than 10% of cells are defined as eosinophilic effusion The most common cause eosinophilia is air or blood in the pleural space Pleural eosinophilia is a fairly non-specific

42. Causes of lymphocytic pleural effusions lymphocytes account for > 50% nucleated cells) Malignancy (including metastatic adenocarcinoma and mesothelioma) Lymphoma Tuberculosis

43. Causes of lymphocytic pleural effusions Cardiac failure Post CABG Rheumatoid effusion Chylothorax Uraemic pleuritis Sarcoidosis Yellow Nail Syndrome

44. Glucose In the absence of pleural pathology, glucose diffuses freely across the pleural membrane and pleural fluid glucose concentration is equivalent to blood A low pleural fluid glucose level (< 3.4 mmol/l) may be found in complicated parapneumonic effusions, Empyema Rheumatoid pleuritis, Tuberculosis, Malignancy, Oesophageal rupture.

45. Glucose The most common causes of a very low pleural fluid glucose level (< 1.6 mmol/l) are rheumatoid arthritis and empyema Although glucose is usually low in pleural infection and correlates to pleural fluid pH values, it is a significantly less accurate indicator for chest tube drainage when compared to pH

46. Cytology The diagnostic yield for malignancy depends on The skill and interest of the cytologist Tumour type. The diagnostic rate is higher for adenocarcinoma than for mesothelioma, squamous cell carcinoma, lymphoma and sarcoma.

47. Tumour markers Pleural fluid and serum tumour markers do not have a role in the investigation of pleural effusions.

48. Management Treatment of the cause Drainage (stop drain for 1-2 hours after 1st 1500 ml) may presipitate pul oedema Pleurodesis with – talc – tetracycline -Bleomycin Surgery