1. Industry Supply

2. Supply From A Competitive Industry u How are the supply decisions of the many individual firms in a competitive industry to be combined to discover the market supply curve for the entire industry? u The aggregation of the behavior of each individual producer will enable us to understand how the market as a whole functions.

3. Supply From A Competitive Industry u Since every firm in the industry is a price-taker, total quantity supplied at a given price is the sum of quantities supplied at that price by the individual firms.

4. Short-Run Supply u In a short-run the number of firms in the industry is temporarily fixed. u Let n be the number of firms; i = 1, …,n. u S i (p) is firm i’s supply function.

5. Short-Run Supply u In a short-run the number of firms in the industry is temporarily fixed. u Let n be the number of firms; i = 1, …,n. u S i (p) is firm i’s supply function. u The industry’s short-run supply function is

6. Supply From A Competitive Industry p S 1 (p) p S 2 (p) Firm 1’s SupplyFirm 2’s Supply

7. Supply From A Competitive Industry p S 1 (p) p S 2 (p) p p’ S 1 (p’) Firm 1’s SupplyFirm 2’s Supply S(p) = S 1 (p) + S 2 (p) Industry’s Supply

8. Supply From A Competitive Industry p S 1 (p) p S 2 (p) p S(p) = S 1 (p) + S 2 (p) p” S 1 (p”) S 1 (p”)+S 2 (p”) S 2 (p”) Firm 1’s SupplyFirm 2’s Supply Industry’s Supply

9. Supply From A Competitive Industry p S 1 (p) p S 2 (p) p Firm 1’s SupplyFirm 2’s Supply S(p) = S 1 (p) + S 2 (p) Industry’s Supply

10. Short-Run Industry Equilibrium u In a short-run, neither entry nor exit can occur. u Consequently, in a short-run equilibrium, some firms may earn positive economic profits, others may suffer economic losses, and still others may earn zero economic profit.

11. Short-Run Industry Equilibrium Market demand Short-run industry supply psepse YseYse Y Short-run equilibrium price clears the market and is taken as given by each firm.

12. Short-Run Industry Equilibrium y1y1 y2y2 y3y3 AC s MC s y1*y1* y2*y2* y3*y3* psepse Firm 1Firm 2Firm 3

13. Short-Run Industry Equilibrium y1y1 y2y2 y3y3 AC s MC s y1*y1* y2*y2* y3*y3* psepse Firm 1Firm 2Firm 3   > 0   < 0   = 0

14. Short-Run Industry Equilibrium y1y1 y2y2 y3y3 AC s MC s y1*y1* y2*y2* y3*y3* psepse Firm 1Firm 2Firm 3 Firm 1 wishes to remain in the industry. Firm 2 wishes to exit from the industry. Firm 3 is indifferent.   > 0   < 0   = 0

15. Long-Run Industry Supply u In the long-run every firm now in the industry is free to exit and firms now outside the industry are free to enter. u The industry’s long-run supply function must account for entry and exit as well as for the supply choices of firms that choose to be in the industry. u How is this done?

16. Long-Run Industry Supply u Positive economic profit induces entry. u Economic profit is positive when the market price p s e is higher than a firm’s minimum av. total cost; p s e > min AC(y). u Entry increases industry supply, causing p s e to fall. u When does entry cease?

17. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y Suppose the industry initially contains only two firms. Mkt. Supply

18. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p2p2 p2p2 Then the market-clearing price is p 2.

19. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p2p2 p2p2 y2*y2* Then the market-clearing price is p 2. Each firm produces y 2 * units of output.

20. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p2p2 p2p2 y2*y2*  > 0 Each firm makes a positive economic profit, inducing entry by another firm.

21. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p2p2 p2p2 Market supply shifts outwards. y2*y2*

22. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p2p2 p2p2 Market supply shifts outwards. Market price falls. y2*y2*

23. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p3p3 Each firm produces less. y3*y3* p3p3

24. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p3p3 Each firm produces less. Each firm’s economic profit is reduced. y3*y3* p3p3  > 0

25. Long-Run Industry Supply S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p3p3 Each firm’s economic profit is positive. Will another firm enter? y3*y3* p3p3  > 0

26. Long-Run Industry Supply S 4 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p3p3 Market supply would shift outwards again. y3*y3* p3p3

27. Long-Run Industry Supply S 4 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p3p3 Market supply would shift outwards again. Market price would fall again. y3*y3* p3p3

28. Long-Run Industry Supply S 4 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p4p4 Each firm would produce less again. y4*y4* p4p4

29. Long-Run Industry Supply S 4 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p4p4 Each firm would produce less again. Each firm’s economic profit would be negative. y4*y4*  < 0 p4p4

30. Long-Run Industry Supply S 4 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p4p4 Each firm would produce less again. Each firm’s economic profit would be negative. So the fourth firm would not enter. y4*y4*  < 0 p4p4

31. Long-Run Industry Supply u The long-run number of firms in the industry is the largest number for which the market price is at least as large as min AC(y).

32. Long-Run Industry Supply u Suppose that market demand is large enough to sustain only two firms in the industry. u If market demand increases, the market price rises, each firm produces more, and earns a higher economic profit.

33. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p2”p2” y2*y2* p2”p2”

34. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y y2*y2* p2”p2”p2”p2”

35. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y y2*y2* Notice that a 3rd firm will not enter since it would earn negative economic profits. p2”p2”p2”p2”

36. Long-Run Industry Supply u As market demand increases further, the market price rises further, the two incumbent firms each produce more and earn still higher economic profits -- until a 3rd firm becomes indifferent between entering and staying out.

37. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y y2*y2* p2”p2”p2”p2”

38. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y y2*y2* p 2 ’”

39. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y y2*y2* A third firm can now enter, causing all firms to earn zero economic profits. p 2 ’”

40. Long-Run Industry Supply S 2 (p) S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y y2*y2* The only relevant part of the short-run supply curve for n = 2 firms in the industry. p 2 ’”

41. Long-Run Industry Supply u How much further can market demand increase before a fourth firm enters the industry?

42. Long-Run Industry Supply Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y p3’p3’ y3*y3* A 4th firm would now earn negative economic profits if it entered the industry. p3’p3’ S 3 (p) S 4 (p)

43. Long-Run Industry Supply S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y y3*y3* S 4 (p) But now a 4th firm would earn zero economic profit if it entered the industry. p3’p3’p3’p3’

44. Long-Run Industry Supply S 3 (p) Mkt. Demand AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market pp Y y3*y3* S 4 (p) p3’p3’p3’p3’ The only relevant part of the short-run supply curve for n = 3 firms in the industry.

45. Long-Run Industry Supply u Continuing in this manner builds the industry’s long-run supply curve, one section at-a-time from successive short-run industry supply curves.

46. Long-Run Industry Supply AC(y)MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market Long-Run Supply Curve pp Y y3*y3* Notice that the bottom of each segment of the supply curve is min AC(y).

47. Long-Run Industry Supply u As each firm gets “smaller” relative to the industry, the long-run industry supply curve approaches a horizontal line at the height of min AC(y).

48. Long-Run Industry Supply AC(y) MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market Long-Run Supply Curve pp Y y* The bottom of each segment of the supply curve is min AC(y). As firms get “smaller” the segments get shorter.

49. Long-Run Industry Supply AC(y) MC(y) y A “Typical” FirmThe Market Long-Run Supply Curve pp Y y* In the limit, as firms become infinitesimally small, the industry’s long-run supply curve is horizontal at min AC(y).

50. Long-Run Market Equilibrium Price u In the long-run market equilibrium, the market price is determined solely by the long-run minimum average production cost. u This means that profits will be close to zero for industries with free entry. Long-run market price is

51. Zero Profits u In an industry with free entry, profits will be driven down to zero, because as long as profits are positive there is an incentive for new firms to enter the market.

52. Zero Profits u When profits (in the economic sense of the word) are zero, the industry stops growing, but does not die. This is because all factors of production are being remunerated at their opportunity cost, i.e. at the rate they would earn elsewhere in the economy. u The existence of positive profits in an industry constitutes a signal that outputs are being more valued than inputs and so it makes sense that more firms enter the industry in order to supply a greater amount of output.

53. Long-Run Market Equilibrium Price u In most competitive industries, there are no restrictions against new firms entering the market, i.e. the industry exhibits free entry. But in some cases, industries exhibit barriers to entry, that may have to do with legal restrictions imposed by the government or with the existence of a limited supply of a certain input.

54. Fixed Inputs and Economic Rent u Since not all industries have free entry, some of them will have a fixed number of firms. There are two main reasons that preclude free entry in an industry: a) There are some inputs that are fixed by nature for the whole economy, even in the long run. This is typically the case of extractive industries, such as oil, precious metals, and also of agriculture as the extension of arable land is limited.

55. Fixed Inputs and Economic Rent b) There are inputs that are fixed by law. In fact, there are industries for which the government imposes restrictions, in the form of licenses and permits. Examples of these industries include the taxi industry or the drugstore/pharmacy industry (in Portugal, at least). Licensing is a barrier to entry into a competitive industry.

56. Fixed Inputs and Economic Rent u The absence of free entry could lead us to think that in these cases profits would not be driven down to zero... but provided that we keep valuing each and every input at its opportunity cost, profits will turn out to be zero as well.

57. Fixed Inputs and Economic Rent u An input (e.g. an operating license) that is fixed in the long-run causes a long-run fixed cost, F. u Long-run total cost, c(y) = F + c v (y). u And long-run average total cost, AC(y) = AFC(y) + AVC(y). u In the long-run equilibrium, what will be the value of F?

58. Fixed Inputs and Economic Rent u Think of a firm that needs an operating license -- the license is a fixed input that is rented but not owned by the firm. u If the firm makes a positive economic profit then another firm can offer the license owner a higher price for it. In this way, all firms’ economic profits are competed away, to zero.

59. Fixed Inputs and Economic Rent u So in the long-run equilibrium, each firm makes a zero economic profit and each firm’s fixed cost is its payment for its operating license.

60. Fixed Inputs and Economic Rent u Economic rent is the payment for an input that is in excess of the minimum payment required to have that input supplied. u Each license essentially costs zero to supply, so the long-run economic rent paid to the license owner is the firm’s long-run fixed cost.

61. Fixed Inputs and Economic Rent u Think of a typical Portuguese drugstore. To run one, a firm must acquire a permit (alvará) from the government. If we value all inputs except the alvará we end up with Z euros per year of “profits”. However, in a competitive market, the value of the alvará per year is precisely Z euros.

62. Fixed Inputs and Economic Rent u Therefore, if the firm could rent the alvará for Z euros, it would be indifferent between running the drugstore or renting the alvará and go out of the drugstore business. So the rent is the opportunity cost of the alvará, which means that if we take this cost into account, we will reach the conclusion that profits are also zero in this case.

63. Fixed Inputs and Economic Rent u In fact, whenever there is a fixed input that is preventing free entry into an industry, there will be an equilibrium rental rate for that input. This rental rate guarantees that the profits (in the economic sense) of a new entrant will be zero.

64. Fixed Inputs and Economic Rent u If the fixed input is not to be rented but to be sold outright, then the price of the input must, in equilibrium, be equal to the present value of the future stream of rental payments. In Portugal, alvarás are sold rather than rented, so its price is supposed to give the present value of future rents.