1. DESIGN OF ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS Course Code : 11-EC201 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMPUTER ENGINEERING

2. Diodes Contents Introduction, Ideal Diode, Physical Operation of PN Junction Diode, Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes, Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics, Limiting and Clamping Circuits, Special Diodes: Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region in Zener Diodes, The Schottky-Barrier Diode(SBD), Varactors, Photo Diodes, Light Emitting Diodes(LEDS)

3. Introduction The diode is the simplest and most fundamental nonlinear circuit element. Just like resistor, it has two terminals. Unlike resistor, it has a nonlinear current-voltage characteristics. Its use in rectifiers is the most common application.

4. Physical Structure

5. P-N junctions The voltage developed across a p-n junction caused by the diffusion of electrons from the n-side of the junction into the p-side and the diffusion of holes from the p-side of the junction into the n-side

6. Built-in Voltage This built-in voltage prevents all of the electrons and holes from diffusing throughout the diode until there is a constant concentration of electrons and holes everywhere. ni ≡ intrinsic carrier concentration [cm−3 ]

7. Biasing a Diode When V a > 0V, the diode is forward biased When V a < 0V, the diode is reverse biased

8. When the applied voltage (V a ) is zero The diode voltage and current are equal to zero on average Any electron that diffuses through the depletion region from the n-side to the p-side is counterbalanced by an electron that drifts from the p-side to the n-side Any hole that diffuses through the depletion region from the p-side to the n-side is counterbalanced by an hole that drifts from the n-side to the p-side So, at any one instant (well under a nanosecond), we may measure a diode current. This current gives rise to one of the sources of electronic noise.

9. Schematically

10. When the applied voltage is less than zero The energy barrier between the p-side and n-side of the diode became larger. It becomes less favorable for diffusion currents to flow It become more favorable for drift currents to flow The diode current is non-zero The amount of current that flows across the p-n junction depends on the number of electrons in the p-type material and the number of holes in the n-type material Therefore, the more heavily doped the p-n junction is the smaller the current will be that flows when the diode is reverse biased

11. Schematically

12. Applied Voltage is greater than zero The energy barrier between the p-side and n-side of the diode became smaller with increasing positive applied voltage until there is no barrier left. It becomes less favorable for drift currents to flow There is no electric field left to force them to flow There is nothing to prevent the diffusion currents to flow The diode current is non-zero The amount of current that flows across the p-n junction depends on the gradient of electrons (difference in the concentration) between the n- and p-type material and the gradient of holes between the p- and n-type material

13. The point at which the barrier becomes zero (the flat-band condition) depends on the value of the built-in voltage. The larger the built-in voltage, the more applied voltage is needed to remove the barrier. It takes more applied voltage to get current to flow for a heavily doped p-n junction When the applied Voltage is greater than zero

14. Schematically

15. Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes The i– v characteristic of a silicon junction diode. The characteristic curve consists of three distinct regions: 1.The forward-bias region, determined by v > 0 2. The reverse-bias region, determined by v < 0 3. The breakdown region, determined by v < -V ZK

16. The diode i– v relationship with some scales expanded and others compressed in order to reveal details.

17. Ideal Diode Equation Where I D and V D are the diode current and voltage, respectively q is the charge on the electron, 1.6 ×10 −19 coulombs n is the ideality factor: n = 1 for indirect semiconductors (Si, Ge, etc.) n = 2 for direct semiconductors (GaAs, InP, etc.) k is Boltzmann’s constant 1.38 ×10 −23, e = Euler's number ≈ 2.718281828 T is temperature in Kelvin; kT/q is also known as V th, the thermal voltage. At 300K (room temperature), kT/q = 25.9mV The relationship between voltage and current for a PN junction is described by this equation, referred to as the "diode equation,“

18. The Forward-Bias Region The forward bias or simply forward – region of operation is entered when the terminal voltage v is positive. In the forward region the i-v relationship is closely approximated by ‘Is’ is a constant for a given diode at a given temperature. The current ‘Is’ is usually called the saturation current. ‘Is’ is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area of the diode, therefore it is also known as the scale current. For "small-signal" diodes, which are small-size diodes intended for low-power applications, ‘Is’ is on the order of 10~ 15 A. As a rule of thumb, ‘Is’ doubles in value for every 5°C rise in temperature.

19. The voltage V T In the above equation is a constant called the thermal voltage and is given by where k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 x 10 -23 joules/kelvin T- the absolute temperature in kelvins = 273 + temperature in °C q = the magnitude of electronic charge = 1.60 x 10 ~1 9 coulomb At room temperature (20°C) V T ≈ 25.2 mV. In rapid approximate circuit analysis V T ≈ 25 mV at room temperature

20. The constant n has a value between 1 and 2, depending on the material and the physical structure of the diode. Diodes made using the standard integrated circuit fabrication process exhibit n = 1 when operated under normal conditions. Diodes available as discrete two-terminal components generally exhibit n = 2. In general, the value of n = 1 unless otherwise specified.

21. For appreciable current i in the forward direction, specifically for i > Is, above equation can be approximated by the exponential relationship This relationship can be expressed alternatively in the logarithmic form where In denotes the natural (base e) logarithm

22. Let us consider the forward i-v relationship in the above equation and evaluate the current I 1 corresponding to a diode voltage V 1 : Similarly, if the voltage is V2, the diode current I2 will be These two equations can be combined to produce which can be rewritten as or, in terms of base-10 logarithms For a decade (factor of 10) change in current, the diode voltage drop changes by 2.3nv T, which is approximately 60 mv for n = 1 and 120 mv for n = 2.

23. A glance at the i-v characteristic in the forward region The current is negligibly small for v smaller than about 0.5 v (cut-in voltage) For a "fully conducting" diode, the voltage drop lies in a narrow range, approximately 0.6 V to 0.8 v. This gives rise to a simple "model" for the diode where it is assumed that a conducting diode has approximately a 0.7-V drop across it. Diodes with different current ratings (i.e., Different areas and correspondingly different is) will exhibit the 0.7-V drop at different currents. A small-signal diode may be considered to have a 0.7-V drop at i = 1 ma, while a higher-power diode may have a 0.7-V drop at i = 1 A.

24. At a given constant diode current the voltage drop across the diode decreases by approximately 2 mV for every 1°C increase in temperature. The temperature dependence of the diode forward characteristic. The change in diode voltage with temperature has been exploited in the design of electronic thermometers.

25. The Reverse-Bias Region The reverse-bias region of operation is entered when the diode voltage v is made negative. The current in the reverse direction is constant and equal to Is. from This constancy is the reason behind the term saturation current. The reverse current also increases somewhat with the increase in magnitude of the reverse voltage. A large part of the reverse current is due to leakage effects

27. The Breakdown Region If the magnitude of the reverse voltage exceeds a threshold value that is specific to the particular diode called the breakdown voltage This is the voltage at the "knee" of the i-v curve and is denoted V ZK, where the subscript Z stands for zener (to be explained shortly) and K denotes knee. In the breakdown region the reverse current increases rapidly, with the associated increase in voltage drop being very small.

28. EXAMPLE

29. A silicon diode said to be a 1-mA device displays a forward voltage of 0.7 V at a current of 1 mA. Evaluate the junction scaling constant 7; in the event that n is either 1 or 2. What scaling constants would apply for a 1-A diode of the same manufacture that conducts 1 A at 0.7 V? example Solution Since then For the 1-mA diode: If n = 1: Is = 10 -3 e -700/25 = 6.9 x 10 -16 A, or about 10 -15 A If n = 2: Is = 10 -3 e -700/50 = 8.3 x 10 -10 A, or about 10 -9 A The diode conducting 1 A at 0.7 V corresponds to one-thousand 1-mA diodes in parallel with a total junction area 1000 times greater. Thus I S is also 1000 times greater, being 1pA and 1µA, respectively for n=1 and n=2.

30. Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristic A simple circuit used to illustrate the analysis of circuits in which the diode is forward conducting

31. The Exponential Model

32. Assuming that V DD is greater than 0.5 V or so, the diode current will be much greater than Is, and we can represent the diode ‘i- v’ characteristic by the exponential relationship, resulting in The other equation that governs circuit operation is obtained by writing a Kirchhoff loop equation, resulting in

33. Graphical analysis using the exponential diode model. The curve represents the exponential diode equation, and the straight line represents

34. Graphical Analysis Using the Exponential Model Graphical analysis is performed by plotting the relationships of Eqs. and on the i-v plane. The load line intersects the diode curve at point Q, which represents the operating point of the circuit. Its coordinates give the values of I D and V D. Graphical analysis aids in the visualization of circuit operation

35. Piecewise-linear (battery-plus resistance) For v D <= V D0 : i D = 0; For v D >= V D0 : i D = 1/r D (v D -V D0 )

36. The Constant-Voltage-Drop Model A forward-conducting diode exhibits a constant voltage drop V D. The value of V D is usually taken to be 0.7 v. For i D > 0: v D = 0.7v

37. The Ideal-Diode Model For i D > 0: v D = 0

38. The Small-Signal Model Development of the diode small-signal model. Note that the numerical values shown are for a diode with n = 2.

39. For small signals superimposed on V D and I D : i d = v d / r d r d = nV T / I D (For n = 1, v d is limited to 5 mV; for n = 2, 10 mV)

40. Ideal Diode The ideal diode may be considered the most fundamental nonlinear circuit element. It is a two-terminal device having the circuit symbol Figure 1 The ideal diode: (a) diode circuit symbol;

41. Figure 1 (b) i– v characteristic; (c) equivalent circuit in the reverse direction; (d) equivalent circuit in the forward direction.

42. Figure 3 (a) Rectifier circuit. (b) Input waveform. A Simple Application: The Rectifier A fundamental application of the diode, one that makes use of its severely nonlinear i-v curve, is the rectifier circuit. The circuit consists of the series connection of a diode D and a resistor R.

43. Another Application: Diode Logic Gates Diodes together with resistors can be used to implement digital logic functions. Diode logic gates: (a) OR gate; (b) AND gate (in a positive-logic system).

44. The two modes of operation of ideal diodes and the use of an external circuit to limit the forward current (a) and the reverse voltage (b).

45.  Series  Positive  Positive biased  Negative biased  Non biased  Negative  Positive biased  Negative biased  Non biased  Parallel  Positive  Positive biased  Negative biased  Non biased  Negative  Positive biased  Negative biased  Non biased Clippers

46. Series Clipper Circuits & Output Waveforms

47. Positive series clipper circuits with bias and output waveforms Positive bias Negative bias

48. Input Output Waveforms and Transfer characteristics with Non Ideal Diodes

49. Shunt parallel positive clipper circuit and output waveform

50. Positive shunt clipper circuit with bias and output waveform

51. Example Positive shunt clipper circuit with bias and output waveform

52. A variety of basic limiting circuits.

55. Limiter Circuits General transfer characteristic for a limiter circuit. Applying a sine wave to a limiter can result in clipping off its two peaks

56. The general transfer characteristic describes a double limiter—that is, a limiter that works on both the positive and negative peaks of an input waveform. If an input waveform is fed to a double limiter, its two peaks will be clipped off. Limiters therefore are sometimes referred to as clippers. This limiter is described as a hard limiter. Soft limiting is characterized by smoother transitions between the linear region and the saturation regions and a slope greater than zero in the saturation regions. Depending on the application, either hard or soft limiting may be preferred

57. Soft limiting.

58. The Clamped Capacitor or DC Restorer The clamped capacitor or dc restorer with a square-wave input and no load.

59. Action of a diode clamper circuit: (a) a typical diode clamper circuit, (b) the sinusoidal input signal, (c) the capacitor voltage, and (d) the output voltage

60. A.C Signal Positive Clamped Negative Clamped Clamped Circuit Input & Output Waveforms

61. The output waveform will therefore have its lowest peak clamped to 0 V, which is why the circuit is called a clamped capacitor. Feeding the resulting pulse waveform to a clamping circuit provides it with a well-determined dc component, a process known as dc restoration. Therefore This circuit is also called a dc restorer

62. The clamped capacitor with a load resistance R.

65. The Voltage Doubler Voltage doubler: (a) circuit; (b) waveform of the voltage across D 1.

66. Types of diodes Rectifier diodes are typically used for power supply applications. Within the power supply, you will see diodes as elements that convert AC power to DC power. Switching diodes have lower power ratings than rectifier diodes, but can function better in high frequency application and in clipping and clamping operations that deal with short-duration pulse waveforms

67. Zener diodes, a special kind of diode that can recover from breakdown caused when the reverse-bias voltage exceeds the diode breakdown voltage. These diodes are commonly used as voltage-level regulators and protectors against high voltage surges Optical diodes Special diodes, such as varactors (diodes with variable capacity), tunnel diodes or Schottky diodes Types of diodes

68. Zener diodes, a special kind of diode that can recover from breakdown caused when the reverse-bias voltage exceeds the diode breakdown voltage. These diodes are commonly used as voltage-level regulators and protectors against high voltage surges Optical diodes Special diodes, such as varactors (diodes with variable capacity), tunnel diodes or Schottky diodes Types of diodes

69. Operation In The Reverse Breakdown Region- ZENER Diodes Circuit symbol for a zener diodeModel for the zener diode.

70. The diode i– v characteristic with the breakdown region shown in some detail.

71. Temperature Effects The dependency of zener voltage on the temperature is specified in terms of the temperature coefficient (TC). The value of TC depends on the zener voltage, and for a given diode the TC varies with the operating current. Zener diodes whose Vz are lower than about 5 V exhibit a negative TC. Zeners with higher voltages exhibit a positive TC. The TC of a zener diode with a Vz of about 5 V can be made zero by operating the diode at a specified current.

72. Schottky Barrier Diode (SBD) It is a metal-semiconductor (MS) diode. (These are the oldest diodes). Metal contact with moderately doped n type material. The general shape of the Schottky diode and I-V characteristics are similar to PN junction diodes, but the details of current flow are different. In a PN junction diodes, current is due to Recombination in the depletion layer under small forward bias. Hole injection from p + side under larger forward bias. In a Schottky diodes current is due to Electron injection from the semiconductor to the metal.

73. One semiconductor region of the pn junction diode is replaced by a non-ohmic rectifying metal contact. A Schottky contact is easily added to n-type silicon, metal region becomes anode. n + region is added to ensure that cathode contact is ohmic. Schottky diode turns on at lower voltage than pn junction diode, has significantly reduced internal charge storage under forward bias.

74. Schottky Barrier Diode (SBD)

75. where  B is Schottky barrier height, V A is applied voltage, A is area, A * is Richardson’s constant. Current is conducted by majority carrier (electrons). Switching speed of the SBD is much higher. The forward voltage of SBD is lower than that of PN junction diode. V – I Characteristics SBD Forward Voltage Drop PN diode Forward Voltage Drop Silicon0.3V – 0.5V0.6V – 0.8V

76. Varactor Diode Variable Capacitors Transition capacitance under reverse bias Diffusion capacitance under forward bias Used in automatic tuning of radio receivers

77. Fig: Varactor diode. (a)Doped regions are like capacitor plates separated by a dielectric (b)ac equivalent circuit (c)Schematic symbol (d)capacitance versus reverse voltage

78. Photo Diode Used to convert light to electric signal Reverse biased PN diode is exposed to light Photons liberated causes breakage of covalent bonds Liberation of electron – hole pairs Results in flow of reverse current across the junction called photo current Photo current is proportional to intensity of light

79. A photodiode circuit. The diode is reverse biased

80. Light Emitting Diode (LED) The operation is inverse to that of a photo diode It converts forward current in to light Minority carriers are injected across the junction and diffuse in to P & N regions Minority carriers recombine with majority carriers emitting photons Made of types III-V semiconductors (e.g., GaAs). Use direct band gap materials like Gallium Arsenide Light emitted proportional to the no. of re-combinations Wide range of applications in different types of displays In order to have a visible light output, the band gap of the semiconductor should be larger then Si. Have a much larger VD 0 between 1.7 to 1.9 V.

81. Both Schottky diodes and LEDs are similar to regular junction diodes (with the exemption of VD 0 value) and the pierce linear model and analysis tools developed above can be applied. When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called ELECTRO-LUMINESCENCE The color of the light is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

82. The band gap of a semiconductor is of two types, a direct band gap or an indirect band gap. The band gap is called "direct" if the momentum of electrons and holes is the same in both the conduction band and the valence band; an electron can directly emit a photon. In an "indirect" gap, a photon cannot be emitted because the electron must pass through an intermediate state and transfer momentum to the crystal lattice. Cont…

83. The minimal-energy state in the conduction band and the maximal-energy state in the valence band are each characterized by a certain crystal momentum (k-vector) in the Brillouin zone. If the k-vectors are the same, it is called a "direct gap". If they are different, it is called an "indirect gap". Cont…

86. LED

87. The inner workings of an LED, showing circuit (top) and band diagram (bottom)

88. I-V diagram for a diode. An LED will begin to emit light when the on-voltage is exceeded. Typical on voltages are 2–3 volts.

90. ColorWavelength range (nm) Typical efficacy (lm/W) Red620 < λ < 64572 Red-orange610 < λ < 62098 Green520 < λ < 55093 Cyan490 < λ < 52075 Blue460 < λ < 49037

91. COLOR WAVE- LENGTH [NM] VOLTAGE DROP [ΔV] SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL Infraredλ > 760ΔV < 1.63 Gallium arsenide (GaAs) Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Red610 < λ < 760 1.63 < ΔV < 2.03 Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Orange590 < λ < 610 2.03 < ΔV < 2.10 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Green 500 < λ < 570 1.9 [ < ΔV < 4.0 Traditional green: Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP) Pure green: Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN)

92. Blue 450 < λ < 5002.48 < ΔV < 3.7 Zinc selenide (ZnSe) Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate Silicon (Si) as substrate—under development Violet400 < λ < 4502.76 < ΔV < 4.0Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) Purplemultiple types2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 Dual blue/red LEDs, blue with red phosphor, or white with purple plastic Ultravioletλ < 4003.1 < ΔV < 4.4 Diamond (235 nm) Boron nitride (215 nm) Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm) Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)— down to 210 nm Pinkmultiple typesΔV ~ 3.3 [ Blue with one or two phosphor layers: yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor added afterwards, or white with pink pigment or dye. WhiteBroad spectrumΔV = 3.5Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

93. There are three main categories of miniature single die LEDs: Low-current: typically rated for 2mA at around 2V (approximately 4mW consumption). Standard: 20mA LEDs (ranging from approximately 40mW to 90mW) at around: 1.9 to 2.1 V for red, orange and yellow, 3.0 to 3.4 V for green and blue, 2.9 to 4.2 V for violet, pink, purple and white. Ultra-high-output: 20mA at approximately 2V or 4–5V, designed for viewing in direct sunlight. 5V and 12V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that incorporate a suitable series resistor for direct connection to a 5V or 12V supply.

94. Light Emitting Diode (LED)  Direct band gap semiconductors used for LEDs: Galium Arsenide (Ga As) Gallium Antimony (Ga Sb) Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorous  Impurities added: Group – II materials like Zinc (Zn), Magnesium (Mg), Cadmium (Cd)  Donors: Group – VI materials like Tellicum (Te), Sulphur (S) etc…  Impurity Concentration: 10 17 – 10 18 /cm 3 for donor atoms and 10 17 – 10 19 /cm 3 for Acceptor atoms  Colors: Gallium Phosphide – Zinc Oxide Red Gallium Phosphide – N Green Silicon Carbide – SiC Yellow Gallium Phosphide, P, N Amber

95. LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have colorless housings. Modern high power LEDs such as those used for lighting and backlighting are generally found in surface-mount technology (SMT) packages (not shown).

96. Advantages & Disadvantages Efficiency Color. On/Off time. Cycling. Dimming. Cool light. Slow failure. Lifetime. Shock resistance. Focus. High initial price Temperature dependence Voltage sensitivity Light quality Area light source Electrical polarity Blue hazard Blue pollution Droop Advantages Disadvantages

97. LED Applications Display instruments like DVMs Colourful lights Produce coherent light with narrow band width (Laser Diode – used in CD Players & Optical communications) Opto-isolator – combination of LED and Photo diode used to reduce electrical interference on signal transmission in a system and used in digital system design and design of medical instruments to reduce risk of electric shock to patients Automotive applications for LEDs continue to grow

98. Different sized LEDs. 8 mm, 5 mm and 3 mm, with a wooden match-stick for scale. LED in its on and off states. A green surface-mount colored LED mounted on an Arduino circuit board

99. Semiconductors Symbols