1. Assembly Line Balancing Applied Management Science for Decision Making, 1e © 2012 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Philip A. Vaccaro, PhD

2. Assembly Line Balancing The assignment of tasks to work stations along an assembly line in such a way as to achieve the same or close to same working times at each work station. THE GOAL IS TO CREATE A SMOOTH, CONTINUOUS FLOW OF PRODUCT THROUGH THE ASSEMBLY LINE FOR MAXIMUM PRODUCTIVITY AND MINIMUM IDLE TIME AT EACH WORK STATION

3. Assembly Line Balancing APPLICATIONS  Cafeteria line  Carwash line  Appliance manufacturing line  Automobile manufacturing line  Registry of Motor Vehicles office line  Disassembly line  Fabrication line  Physical exams for military recruits - POULTRY SLAUGHTER - AUTOMOBILE RECYCLING - PRODUCTION OF PARTS VIA SERIES OF MACHINES

4. Assembly Line Balancing Cafeteria Line Station 1 Trays, Plates, Utensils Station 2 Appetizers Station 3 Entrees Station 4 Desserts Station 5 Cashier

5. Assembly Line Balancing Poultry Dissassembly Line Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5 Station 6

6. Assembly Line Balancing Raw Recruit Physical Examinations 14 Stations including Reception Eye Examination Chest X-ray Weight + Height Measurement Psychological Heart Rate

7. Assembly Line Balancing WHEN IT IS DONE BEFORE ACTUAL PRODUCTION IN WESTERN MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS DURING ACTUAL PRODUCTION IN ASIAN MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

8. Individual Task Times  These are set well in advance by industrial engineers and time & motion specialists  They are called standard task times and consist of normal time to perform a particular task and extra time allowances for fatigue, personal needs, and unavoidable, but recurring delays.

9. The Assembly Line Balancing Concept Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 The Assembly Line to warehouse or retailer At the end of every cycle, each station hands its work-in-process unit to the next station. work-in-process unit to the next station. A cycle is the amount of time that a work-in-process unit can stay in a work station before it must move onto the next.

10. The Assembly Line Balancing Concept Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 The Assembly Line to warehouse or retailer The effective production rate for the assembly line equals one completed product every 10 minutes, even though each unit requires 30 minutes to build! If the cycle time were 10 minutes, each station would hand its work-in-process unit over to the next station at the end of 10 minutes.

11. The Assembly Line Balancing Concept Station 1 ( 10 Minutes ) Station 2 ( 10 Minutes ) Station 3 ( 10 Minutes ) Total Time ( 30 Minutes ) Task A ( 10 minutes ) Task B ( 5 minutes ) Task D ( 2 minutes ) Task C ( 5 minutes ) Task E ( 3 minutes ) Task F ( 5 minutes ) 10 Minutes Productive Time 10 Minutes Productive Time 10 Minutes Productive Time 30 Minutes Total Productive Time 0 Minutes Idle Time 0 Minutes Idle Time 0 Minutes Idle Time 0 Minutes Total Idle Time Assume the cycle time is 10 minutes A PERFECTLY-BALANCED ASSEMBLY LINE

12. The Assembly Line Balancing Concept  Tasks are measured in seconds and vary widely.  It is impossible to as- sign tasks to all work stations so as to get exact work times at each station per cycle.  Therefore, a perfectly balanced assembly line does not exist !

13. The Assembly Line Balancing Concept Station 1 ( 10 Minutes ) Station 2 ( 10 Minutes ) Station 3 ( 10 Minutes ) Total Time ( 30 Minutes ) Task A ( 9 minutes ) Task B ( 4 minutes ) Task D ( 2 minutes ) Task C ( 4 minutes ) Task E ( 2 minutes ) Task F ( 5 minutes ) 9 Minutes Productive Time 8 Minutes Productive Time 9 Minutes Productive Time 26 Minutes Total Productive Time 1 Minute Idle Time 2 Minutes Idle Time 1 Minute Idle Time 4 Minutes Total Idle Time Assume the cycle time is 10 minutes A NOT PERFECTLY-BALANCED ASSEMBLY LINE

14. Assembly Line Balancing Steps Provide the tools, equipment, and work methods  Provide the tools, equipment, and work methods to be used in producing a product or service at a to be used in producing a product or service at a desired volume. desired volume.

15. Assembly Line Balancing Steps Provide the tools, equipment, and work methods  Provide the tools, equipment, and work methods to be used in producing a product or service at a to be used in producing a product or service at a desired volume. desired volume.  Identify the standard time for each assembly or service task involved in the creation of the product service task involved in the creation of the product or service. or service.

16. Assembly Line Balancing Steps Provide the tools, equipment, and work methods  Provide the tools, equipment, and work methods to be used in producing a product or service at a to be used in producing a product or service at a desired volume. desired volume.  Identify the standard time for each assembly or service task involved in the creation of the product service task involved in the creation of the product or service. or service.  Identify the precedence relationships. THE ORDER IN WHICH THE TASKS MUST BE PERFORMED

17. Practical Problem Statement Develop the Assembly Line ! A firm wants to produce 160 units of a product each 8-hour day on an assembly line. Nine ( 9 ) separate tasks are needed to complete each unit of product. Assume no break time and no paid lunch time

18. Task Predecessor Standard Time Anone60 BA80 Cnone30 DC40 EB,D40 Fnone50 GF100 HD,G70 IE,H30 Σ = 500 seconds

19. The Precedence Diagram  A network showing the sequential relationships among all tasks to be performed on the assembly line, together with their respective standard times.  An optional, useful tool for avoiding precedence relationship violations when assigning tasks to work stations, without benefit of the computer.

20. The Precedence Diagram The Precedence Diagram THE ORDER IN WHICH TASKS MUST BE PERFORMED A 60 C 30 F 50 B 80 D 40 G 100 E 40 H 70 I 30

21. The Cycle Time SHOWN IN SECONDS The maximum period of time that a work-in-process unit can stay in any given work station before it must move on to the next work station.

22. The Cycle Time Formula Total Available Daily Production Time Daily Production Quota 28,800 Seconds 160 Units ( FROM THE PROBLEM ) = 180 Seconds

23. The Minimum Number of Work Stations The minimum number of work stations that the  The minimum number of work stations that the new assembly line, when balanced, will contain. new assembly line, when balanced, will contain.

24. The Minimum Number of Work Stations The minimum number of work stations that the  The minimum number of work stations that the new assembly line, when balanced, will contain. new assembly line, when balanced, will contain.  The actual number of work stations may well exceed the minimum number by one or more. exceed the minimum number by one or more.

25. The Minimum Number of Work Stations The minimum number of work stations that the  The minimum number of work stations that the new assembly line, when balanced, will contain. new assembly line, when balanced, will contain.  The actual number of work stations may well exceed the minimum number by one or more. exceed the minimum number by one or more.  Also known as the theoretical minimum number of work stations. number of work stations.

26. The Formula Total Task Time Per Unit of Product The Cycle Time 500 Seconds 180 Seconds = 2.77 ≈ 3.00 FRACTIONS ARE ALWAYS ROUNDED UP ( i.e. “2.01” becomes “3.00” ) MINIMUM NUMBER OF WORK STATIONS

27. The Line-Balancing Spreadsheet To assign individual tasks to each work station.  The theoretical minimum number of work stations.  The cycle time for each work station.  The cycle time for the entire assembly line.  The productive time per cycle at each work station.  The idle time per cycle at each work station. SHOWS

28. The Line Balancing Spreadsheet Cycle Time 180 seconds 180 seconds 180 seconds 540 seconds Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Productive Time Per Cycle Idle Time Per Cycle

29. Task Assignment Heuristic From the Greek έύρϊσκειν ( heuriskein )  From the Greek έύρϊσκειν ( heuriskein ) meaning “to discover” or “to guide”. meaning “to discover” or “to guide”.

30. Task Assignment Heuristic From the Greek έύρϊσκειν ( heuriskein )  From the Greek έύρϊσκειν ( heuriskein ) meaning “to discover” or “to guide”. meaning “to discover” or “to guide”.  A rule of thumb or guideline for finding a solution in general. a solution in general.

31. Task Assignment Heuristic From the Greek έύρϊσκειν ( heuriskein )  From the Greek έύρϊσκειν ( heuriskein ) meaning “to discover” or “to guide”. meaning “to discover” or “to guide”.  A rule of thumb or guideline for finding a solution in general. a solution in general.  Here, a particular rationale for assigning tasks to work stations in line balancing. tasks to work stations in line balancing.

32. Heuristic Selection I.The LOT rule – longest operating time II.The SOT rule – shortest operating time III.The MFT rule – the most follower tasks IV.The LFT rule – the least follower tasks V.The Ranked Positional Weight or Highest Sum rule FIVE POPULAR HEURISTICS FOR LINE BALANCING

33. The LOT Assignment Heuristic  Also known as the longest operating time rule.  Assigns the longest tasks to the work stations first. SUBJECT TO MAINTAINING THE PRECEDENCE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE WORK TASKS Task A before B B and D before E

34. Precedence Diagram Legend X Y Z NON-CANDIDATE TASKS ( SHOWN IN BLUE ) A D AN ASSIGNED TASK ( SHOWN WITH “X” ACROSS ) X CANDIDATES FOR THE NEXT TASK ASSIGNMENT ( SHOWN IN RED ) B C D X D X

35. The Precedence Diagram A 60 C 30 F 50 B 80 D 40 G 100 E 40 H 70I30

36. The Precedence Diagram A 60 C 30 F 50 B 80 D 40 G 100 E 40 H 70I30 1 st TASK ASSIGNMENT CANDIDATES FOR STATION 1

37. The Line Balancing Spreadsheet Cycle Time 180 seconds 180 seconds 180 seconds 540 seconds Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Productive Time Per Cycle Idle Time Per Cycle TASK A ( 60 sec )

38. The Precedence Diagram A 60 C 30 F 50 B 80 D 40 G 100 E 40 H 70I30 2 nd TASK ASSIGNMENT CANDIDATES FOR STATION 1 X

39. The Line Balancing Spreadsheet Cycle Time 180 seconds 180 seconds 180 seconds 540 seconds Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Productive Time Per Cycle Idle Time Per Cycle TASK A TASK A ( 60 sec ) TASK B TASK B ( 80 sec )

40. The Precedence Diagram A 60 C 30 F 50 B 80 D 40 G 100 E 40 H 70I30 3 rd TASK ASSIGNMENT CANDIDATES FOR STATION 1 XX

41. The Line Balancing Spreadsheet Cycle Time 180 seconds 180 seconds 180 seconds 540 seconds Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Productive Time Per Cycle Idle Time Per Cycle TASK A ( 60 sec ) TASK B ( 80 sec ) TASK C ( 30 sec ) 10 seconds

42. The Precedence Diagram A 60 C 30 F 50 B 80 D 40 G 100 E 40 H 70I30 1 st TASK ASSIGNMENT CANDIDATES FOR STATION 2 XX X

43. The Line Balancing Spreadsheet Cycle Time 180 seconds 180 seconds 180 seconds 540 seconds Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Productive Time Per Cycle Idle Time Per Cycle TASK A ( 60 sec ) TASK B ( 80 sec ) TASK C ( 30 sec ) 10seconds TASK F ( 50 sec )

44. The Precedence Diagram A 60 C 30 F 50 B 80 D 40 G 100 E 40 H 70 I 30 2 nd TASK ASSIGNMENT CANDIDATES FOR STATION 2 XX X X

45. The Line Balancing Spreadsheet Cycle Time 180 seconds 180 seconds 180 seconds 540 seconds Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Productive Time Per Cycle Idle Time Per Cycle TASK A ( 60 sec ) TASK B ( 80 sec ) TASK C ( 30 sec ) 10seconds TASK F ( 50 sec) TASK G (100 sec) TASK G (100 sec) 30seconds

46. The Precedence Diagram A 60 C 30 F 50 B 80 D 40 G 100 E 40 H 70 I 30 1 st TASK ASSIGNMENT CANDIDATES FOR STATION 3 XX X XX

47. The Line Balancing Spreadsheet Cycle Time 180 seconds 180 seconds 180 seconds 540 seconds Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Productive Time Per Cycle Idle Time Per Cycle TASK A ( 60 sec ) TASK B ( 80 sec ) TASK C ( 30 sec ) 10seconds TASK F (50 sec) TASK G (100 sec) TASK G (100 sec) 30seconds TASK D TASK D ( 40 sec )

48. The Precedence Diagram A 60 C 30 F 50 B 80 D 40 G 100 E 40 H 70 I 30 2 nd TASK ASSIGNMENT CANDIDATES FOR STATION 3 XX X XX X

49. The Line Balancing Spreadsheet Cycle Time 180 second s 180 seconds 180 seconds 540 seconds Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Productive Time Per Cycle Idle Time Per Cycle TASK A ( 60 sec ) TASK B ( 80 sec ) TASK C ( 30 sec ) 10 seconds TASK F (50 sec) TASK G (100 sec) TASK G (100 sec) 30seconds TASK D ( 40 sec ) TASK H ( 70 sec )

50. The Precedence Diagram A 60 C 30 F 50 B 80 D 40 G 100 E 40 H 70 I 30 3 rd TASK ASSIGNMENT CANDIDATES FOR STATION 3 XX X XX X X

51. The Line Balancing Spreadsheet Cycle Time 180 seconds 180 seconds 180 seconds 540 seconds Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Productive Time Per Cycle Idle Time Per Cycle TASK A ( 60 sec ) TASK B ( 80 sec ) TASK C ( 30 sec ) 10seconds TASK F (50 sec) TASK G (100 sec) TASK G (100 sec) 30seconds TASK D (40 sec) TASK H (70 sec) TASK E (40 sec)

52. The Precedence Diagram A 60 C 30 F 50 B 80 D 40 G 100 E 40 H 70 I 30 4 th TASK ASSIGNMENT CANDIDATES FOR STATION 3 XX X XX X X X

53. The Line Balancing Spreadsheet Cycle Time 180 seconds 180 seconds 180 seconds 540 seconds Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Productive Time Per Cycle Idle Time Per Cycle TASK A ( 60 sec ) TASK B ( 80 sec ) TASK C ( 30 sec ) 10seconds TASK F (50 sec) TASK G (100 sec) TASK G (100 sec) 30seconds TASK D (40 sec) TASK H (70 sec) TASK E (40 sec) TASK I (30 sec) 0seconds

54. The Line Balancing Spreadsheet Cycle Time 180 seconds 180 seconds 180 seconds 540 seconds Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Productive Time Per Cycle Idle Time Per Cycle TASK A ( 60 sec ) TASK B ( 80 sec ) TASK C ( 30 sec ) 10seconds TASK F (50 sec) TASK G (100 sec) TASK G (100 sec) 30seconds TASK D (40 sec) TASK H (70 sec) TASK E (40 sec) TASK I (30 sec) 0seconds 500 seconds 40 seconds TOTAL

55. Evaluating The Balanced Line Efficiency = total productive time on the assembly line per cycle total available time on the assembly line per cycle 500 seconds 540 seconds = 92.6% EFFICIENCY => 90% IS CONSIDERED ACCEPTABLE

56. Evaluating The Balanced Line Balance Delay Factor ( % IDLE TIME ) line idle time per cycle line total time per cycle = 40 seconds 540 seconds == 7.4% A BALANCE DELAY FACTOR =< 10% IS CONSIDERED TO BE ACCEPTABLE

57. Evaluating The Balanced Line Effectiveness is achieved if the assembly line meets management’s daily production quota THE EMPLOYMENT OF THE MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE CYCLE TIME GUARANTEED DAILY QUOTA COMPLIANCE ! 10

58. Line Balancing under QM for Windows

59. We Select The ‘Assembly Line Balancing’ Program

60. We Desire To Solve A New Problem

61. The Dialog Box Appears

62. Nine ( 9 ) Tasks Need To Be Assigned To Work Stations Task Times Are Normally Stated In Seconds We Label Tasks as A,B,C,D, etc.

63. THE DATA INPUT TABLE PROVIDES COLUMNS FOR LISTING EACH TASK’S PREDECESSOR(S) THE SOFTWARE DETERMINES HOW MANY COLUMNS SHOULD BE PROVIDED FOR LISTING PREDECESSOR TASKS

64. The Predecessor Tasks Must Be Shown In Individual Cells, Alphabetically Here, We Entered The Cycle Time For The Software To Work With We Selected The “LOT” Assignment Heuristic For Balancing This Assembly Line

65. Line Efficiency = 92.59% Balance Delay Factor = 7.41% Idle Time Per Cycle, Per Work Station Task Candidates Tasks A,B,C assigned To Work Station # 1

66. This Is The Program’s Way of Asking Us If This Is The Correct Precedence Relationship Among The Nine Tasks

67. The Amount of Productive Time Per Cycle In Each Work Station The Cycle Time is 180 seconds

68. If task “ I ” had a standard time of forty seconds….. 1.What changes must be made to the line-balancing spreadsheet? 2.How would the efficiency of the line be affected? NEW SCENARIO ? ?

69. The New Precedence Diagram A 60 C 30 F 50 B 80 D 40 G 100 E 40 H 70 I 40 TASK “ I “ BECOMES FORTY SECONDS

70. The Line-Balancing Spreadsheet Cycle time 180 seconds 180 seconds 180 seconds 180 seconds Σ 720 station 1 station 2 station 3 station 4 TASK A TASK B TASK C 170 seconds TASK F TASK G 150 seconds TASK D TASK H TASK E 150 seconds TASK I 40 seconds Σ = 510 seconds Σ = 210 seconds MODIFIED FOR TASK “ I ” NEW STANDARD TIME seconds Productive Time Per Cycle Idle Time Per Cycle 10 seconds30 seconds 140 seconds

71. Spreadsheet Modifications  A 4 th work station would need to be opened exclusively for task “I”.  Total assembly line available time per cycle would jump to 720 seconds ( 180 secs x 4 stations )  Total assembly line idle time per cycle would jump to 210 seconds ( under any assignment heuristic )  The balanced line would no longer be efficient ( 71% )

72. Evaluating The Balanced Line FOURTH STATION ADDED FOR TASK “I” Efficiency == 71% Balance Delay Factor 210 seconds 720 seconds == 29% THE LINE FAILS IN EFFICIENCY 510 seconds 720 seconds

73. Minimum Allowable Cycle Time THE “OTHER” CYCLE TIME  Cycle time based on the bottleneck task *  No guarantee that the daily production quota will be met  Line efficiency will most likely change under this cycle time * THE LONGEST TASK TIME

74. Minimum Allowable Cycle Time  From the text example, the longest task is “G” which takes 100 seconds to perform.  The minimum allowable cycle time therefore is 100 seconds.  The theoretical minimum number of work stations: EXAMPLE 500 seconds 100 seconds = 5 ASSUME TASK “ I “ = 30 SECONDS

75. 100 seconds 100 seconds 100 seconds 100 seconds 100 seconds 100 seconds Σ 600 seconds Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5 Station 6 Productive Time Per Cycle TASK A TASK C 90 seconds TASK B 80 seconds TASK F TASK D 90 seconds TASK G 100 seconds TASK H 70 seconds TASK E TASK I 70 seconds Σ 500 seconds Idle Time Per Cycle Σ 100 seconds Minimum Allowable Cycle Time LINE-BALANCING SPREADSHEET Cycle Time 10 seconds 20 seconds 10 seconds 0 seconds 30 seconds 30 seconds ASSUME TASK “ I ” = 30 SECONDS WE ENDED UP WITH SIX WORK STATIONS IN ORDER TO ASSIGN ALL 9 TASKS

76. Evaluating The Balanced Line MINIMUM ALLOWABLE CYCLE TIME Efficiency = 500 seconds =.833 = 83.3% 600 seconds Balance Delay Factor = 100 seconds =.167 = 16.7% 600 seconds THE LINE FAILS TO MEET ACCEPTABLE EFFICIENCY 0 0 0 ASSUME TASK “I” = 30 SECONDS

77. 100 seconds 100 seconds 100 seconds 100 seconds 100 seconds 100 seconds Σ 600 seconds Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5 Station 6 Productive Time Per Cycle TASK A TASK C 90 seconds TASK B 80 seconds TASK F TASK D 90 seconds TASK G 100 seconds TASK H 70 seconds TASK E TASK I 80 seconds Σ 510 seconds Idle Time Per Cycle Σ 90 seconds Minimum Allowable Cycle Time LINE-BALANCING SPREADSHEET Cycle Time 10 seconds 20 seconds 10 seconds 0 seconds 30 seconds 20 seconds ASSUME TASK “ I ” = 40 SECONDS

78. Evaluating The Balanced Line MINIMUM ALLOWABLE CYCLE TIME Efficiency = 510 seconds =.850 = 85.0% 600 seconds Balance Delay Factor = 90 seconds =.150 = 15.0% 600 seconds THE LINE FAILS TO MEET ACCEPTABLE EFFICIENCY 0 0 0 ASSUME TASK “ I ” = 40 SECONDS

79. Evaluating The Balanced Line Effectiveness Under Maximum Allowable Cycle Time 28,800 seconds 180 seconds = 160 units produced daily Effectiveness Under Minimum Allowable Cycle Time 28,800 seconds 100 seconds = 288 units produced daily ___________________________________________________

80. Scoreboard Type Cycle Cycle Time Task “ I ” EfficiencyBalanceDelay MAXIMUM Allowable 180 seconds 30 seconds 92.59%7.41% MAXIMUM Allowable 180 seconds40 seconds70.83%29.17% MINIMIN Allowable 100 seconds 30 seconds 83.33%16.67% MINIMIN Allowable 100 seconds40 seconds85.00%15.00% ACCEPTABLE EFFICIENCY

81. Line Balancing under QM for Windows ADDITIONAL SCENARIOS

82. The Maximum Allowable Cycle Time Assume Task “ I “ Equals 40 Seconds The LOT Assignment Heuristic

83. Rebalanced Assembly Line Maximum Allowable Cycle Time Task “ I “ = 40 Seconds LOT Assignment Heuristic

84. The Minimum Allowable Cycle Time Task “ I “ Equals 30 Seconds The LOT Assignment Heuristic Is Employed

85. Rebalanced Assembly Line Minimum Allowable Cycle Time Task “ I “ = 30 Seconds LOT Assignment Heuristic

86. LOT Assignment Heuristic Task “ I “ Equals 40 Seconds The Minimum Allowable Cycle Time

87. Rebalanced Assembly Line LOT Assignment Heuristic Minimum Allowable Cycle Time Task “ I “ = 40 Seconds

88. Scoreboard Type Cycle Cycle Time Task “ I ” EfficiencyBalanceDelay MAXIMUM Allowable 180 seconds 30 seconds 92.59%7.41% MAXIMUM Allowable 180 seconds40 seconds70.83%29.17% MINIMIN Allowable 100 seconds 30 seconds 83.33%16.67% MINIMIN Allowable 100 seconds40 seconds85.00%15.00% ACCEPTABLE EFFICIENCY

89. Decision Process Line Efficiency < 90% Try Minimum Allowable Cycle Time Line Efficiency Still < 90% Product Redesign Worker Training Faster Equipment etc. Rebalance Line OUTSIDE THE REALM OF LINE BALANCING MAY TAKE MONTHS TO ACCOMPLISH

90. Why Labor Idleness Is Costly  Average worker wage rate is $25.00 per hour  Ten (10) seconds of idle time per cycle in one particular work station.  One hundred sixty (160) cycles per work day. ASSUME THE FOLLOWING

91. IDLE TIME COSTS 1 Station $11.20Daily $2,800.00Annually 20 Stations $56,000.00Annually 5 Plants $250,000.00Annually

92. Assembly Line Efficiency The overall efficiency of the assembly line cannot be changed by employing a different task assign- ment heuristic. This would merely reshuffle the tasks among the work stations. MFT SOT LFT A FINAL WORD

93. Fairness in Line Balancing Experimenting with different task assignment heuristics may prove useful if management is seeking a more equitable distribution of work among all of its work station employees. Per CycleSTATION 1STATION 2STATION 3 PRODUCTIVE TIME 167 seconds IDLE TIME 13 seconds AVAILABLE TIME 180 seconds

94. Assembly Line Balancing THE END Applied Management Science for Decision Making, 1e © 2011 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Philip A. Vaccaro, PhD