1. Wireless & Mobile Communications Chapter 6: Network Protocols/Mobile IP  Motivation  Data transfer  Encapsulation  Security  IPv6  Problems  DHCP  Ad-hoc networks  Routing protocols

2. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.2 Why Mobile IP?  What do cellular networks and wireless LANs provide?  Wireless connectivity  Mobility at the data link layer  What is Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)?  It provides local IP addresses for mobile hosts  Is not secure  Does not maintain network connectivity when moving around  What they do not provide:  Transparent connectivity at the network layer  Mobility with local access  The difference between mobility and nomadicity!

3. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.3 What is Mobile IP?  Mobile IP provides network layer mobility  Provides seamless roaming  ‘‘Extends’’ the home network over the entire Internet

4. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.4 IP Overview 1/3  IP Addressing :  Dotted Decimal Notation: 32 bits (4x8) used to represent IPv4 addresses - 192.19.241.18  Network Prefix and Host Portions: p - prefix, h - host, p + h = 32. If p = 24 then h = 32 - 24 = 8. Using above address the network prefix will be 192.19.241 and host will be 18. For those of you familiar with subnet masks, “p” represents the number of 1’s in the subnet mask. If p = 24, subnet mask is 255.255.255.0, if p = 26, subnet mask is 255.255.255.192.

5. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.5 IP Overview 2/3  IP Routing:  Network prefix is used for routing. Routing tables are used to look up next hop and the interface on the router that is to be used.  In the routing tables we use the following notation: target/prefix length, e.g., 192.19.241.0/24, or 192.19.241.192/26.  If two subnet masks/prefixes fit the address, the one with the largest prefix is chosen for routing. E.g., a router with the following 3 entries in its table: 7.7.7.99/32 (p=32 host specific) and 7.7.7.0/24 (0<p<32 network prefix) and 0.0.0.0/0 (p=0 default) will use entry 2 for an IP packet with destination 7.7.7.1 and entry 3 for destination 192.33.14.12.

6. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.6 IP Overview 3/3  Domain Name System (DNS): used to translate a host name to an IP address. A host sends a query to a server to obtain the IP address of a destination of which it only has the host name.  Link Layer Addresses - Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):  Once a host has the IP address of a destination it then needs to finds its layer 2 address or the layer 2 address of the next hop on the path. A broadcast message is sent and the targeted host responds with its layer 2 address.  A proxy ARP is a response by a node for another node that cannot respond at the time the request is made (e.g. the node is a mobiel node and not on its host net at the time, its home agent will respond in its stead).  A gratuitous ARP, is a reply to no ARP request, used by a node that just joins the network and wants to make its address known. Can be used by a mobile node upon its return to its home net.

7. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.7 Motivation for Mobile IP  IP Routing  based on IP destination address, network prefix (e.g. 129.13.42) determines physical subnet  change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a topologically correct address (standard IP) or needs special entries in the routing tables  Specific routes to end-systems?  requires changing all routing table entries to forward packets to the right destination  does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent changes in the location, security problems  Changing the IP-address?  adjust the host IP address depending on the current location  almost impossible to find a mobile system, DNS updates take long time  TCP connections break, security problems

8. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.8 What Mobile IP does:  Mobile IP solves the following problems:  if a node moves without changing its IP address it will be unable to receive its packets,  if a node changes its IP address it will have to terminate and restart its ongoing connections everytime it moves to a new network area (new network prefix).  Mobile IP is a routing protocol with a very specific purpose.  Mobile IP is a network layer solution to node mobility in the Internet.  Mobile IP is not a complete solution to mobility, changes to the transport protocols need to be made for a better solution (i.e., the transport layers are unaware of the mobile node’s point of attachment and it might be useful if, e.g., TCP knew that a wireless link was being used!).

9. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.9 Requirements to Mobile IP (RFC 2002)  Transparency  mobile end-systems keep their IP address  continuation of communication after interruption of link possible  point of connection to the fixed network can be changed  Compatibility  support of the same layer 2 protocols as IP  no changes to current end-systems and routers required  mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems  Security  authentication of all registration messages  Efficiency and scalability  only little additional messages to the mobile system required (connection typically via a low bandwidth radio link)  world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the whole Internet

10. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.10 Mobile IP Terminology  Mobile Node (MN)  system (node) that can change the point of connection to the network without changing its IP address  Home Agent (HA)  system in the home network of the MN, typically a router  registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams to the COA  Foreign Agent (FA)  system in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router  forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN, typically also the default router for the MN  Care-of Address (COA)  address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN)  actual location of the MN from an IP point of view  can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP  Correspondent Node (CN)  communication partner

11. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.11 Mobile IP Operation: Summary  Consists of 3 steps:  Agent discovery,  Registration, and  Routing/Tunneling

12. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.12 Operation Summary 1/3  Agent Advertisement/Discovery: consists of broadcast messages used by mobiles to detect that they have moved and are required to register with a new FA.  FAs send agent advertisements  MNs can solicit for agents if they have not heard an agent advertisement in awhile or use some other mechanism to obtain a COA or temp. IP address (e.g. DHCP).  MNs know they are home when they recognize their HA.

13. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.13 Operation Summary 2/3  Registration: used by a MN to inform the FA that it is visiting.  The new care of address of the MN is sent to the HA.  Registration expires, duration is negotiated during registration  Mobile must re-register before it expires  All registrations are authenticated  The MN sends a regristration request in to the FA which passes it along to the home agent. The HA responds to the FA which then informs the MN that all is in order and registration is complete.

14. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.14 Operation Summary 3/3  Routing/Encapsulation/Tunneling: consists of the delivery of the packets to the mobile node at its current care of address.  Sender does not need to know that the destination is a MN.  HA intercepts all packets for the MN and passes them along to MN using a tunnel.  MN communicates directly with the CN.  Referred to as Triangle Routing

15. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.15 Example network mobile end-system Internet router end-system FA HA MN home network foreign network (physical home network for the MN) (current physical network for the MN) CN

16. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.16 Data transfer to the mobile system Internet sender FA HA MN home network foreign network receiver 1 2 3 1. Sender sends to the IP address of MN, HA intercepts packet (proxy ARP) 2. HA tunnels packet to COA, here FA, by encapsulation 3. FA forwards the packet to the MN CN

17. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.17 Data transfer from the mobile system Internet receiver FA HA MN home network foreign network sender 1 1. Sender sends to the IP address of the receiver as usual, FA works as default router CN

18. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.18 Overview CN router HA router FA Internet router 1. 2. 3. home network MN foreign network 4. CN router HA router FA Internet router home network MN foreign network COA

19. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.19 Network integration  Agent Advertisement Discovery  HA and FA periodically send advertisement messages into their physical subnets  MN listens to these messages and detects, if it is in the home or a foreign network (standard case for home network)  MN reads a COA from the FA advertisement messages  Registration (always limited lifetime!)  MN signals COA to the HA via the FA, HA acknowledges via FA to MN  these actions have to be secured by authentication  Routing/Encapsulation/Tunneling  HA advertises the IP address of the MN (as for fixed systems), i.e. standard routing information  packets to the MN are sent to the HA,  independent of changes in COA/FA

20. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.20 Agent advertisement preference level 1 router address 1 #addresses type addr. sizelifetime checksum COA 1 COA 2 typesequence numberlength 0 781516312423 code preference level 2 router address 2... registration lifetime... RBHFMGV reserved

21. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.21 Registration t MN HA registration request registration reply t MN FAHA registration request registration request registration reply registration reply

22. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.22 Mobile IP registration request home agent home address typelifetime 0 781516312423 rsv identification COA extensions... SBDMGV

23. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.23 Processing Registration Messages 1/3  A MN, depending on which registration scenario it is in, will figure what addresses to use in the various fields of the Registration request message.  Link layer addresses are tricky: A MN may not use ARP if it is using a FA COA. It needs to use the address of the FA as the destination address. If it is using a collocated COA, then it uses ARP to locate the default router using its COA as source. Note that if the ‘R’ bit is set is uses the FA address as the destination address. For de-registration is uses ARP to locate the HA link address and it uses its own home address for the ARP message.  For network layer addresses (i.e., IP addresses): It uses the FA address as destination address when using the FA COA and its own home address as the source address. If using a collocated COA it uses its COA as source address and the HA address as destination address. Note that if the ‘R’ bit is set then is must use the same addresses as for the FA COA scenario. For de-registration it uses its own home address as source and the HA address as destination.

24. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.24 Processing Registration Messages 2/3  For the FA:  A FA may refuse a Registration request for a number of reasons: lifetime too long, authentication failed, requested tunneling not supported, cannot handle another MN (current load too high).  If an FA does not refuse the request it relays it to the HA. Relaying is different from forwading as the FA is required to process the packet and create new headers.  Some important fields of the request message are recorded for use later on: MN link layer address, MN IP address, UDP source port, HA IP address, identification number and requested lifetime.  Regarding a Registration reply message, the FA can refuse it and send a decline to the MN is it finds the reply from the HA to be invalid. Otherwise it updates its list of visiting MNs and begins acting on behalf of the MN.

25. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.25 Processing Registration Messages 3/3  For a HA  The HA will determine, as the FA did, whether it will accept the request. If it does not it returns a code in the reply message indicating the cause of the failed request.  If the request is accepted, the reply is sent back by reversing all the IP addresses and UDP port numbers.  The HA updates the binding table corresponding to that MN dependent upon the nature of the request.

26. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.26 Routing/Tunneling 1/5  Routing a packet to a MN involves the following:  A router on the home link, possibly the HA, advertises reachability to the network prefix of the MN’s home address.  All packets are therefore routed to the MN’s home link.  A HA intercepts the packets for the MN and tunnels a copy to each COA in the binding table.  At the foreign link either the MN extracts the packet (collocated COA) or the FA extracts the packet and forwards it to the MN.

27. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.27 Routing/Tunneling 2/5  A HA can use one of two methods to intercept a MN’s packets:  The HA is a router with multiple network interfaces. In that case it advertises reachability to the MN’s home network prefix.  The HA is not a router with multiple intefaces. It must use ARP to receive the MN’s packets. It either responds to ARP requests on behalf of the MN (proxy ARP) or uses gratuitous ARPs to inform the home network that it is receiving the MN’s IP packets. This is to update any ARP caches that hosts and other devices might have.

28. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.28 Routing/Tunneling 3/5  How to ‘fool’ the routing table into handling tunneled packets at the HA?  A virtual interface is used to do the encapsulation.  A packet destined for the MN is handled by the routing routine as all received IP packets are.  The routing table has a host specific entry for the MN. This host specific entry is used to route the packet to a virtual interface that basically consists of a process that does encapsulation.  Once encapsulation has been performed the packet is sent to be processed by the routing routine again. This time the destination address is the COA and it is routed normally.

29. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.29 Routing/Tunneling 4/5  How to ‘fool’ the routing table into handling tunneled packets at the FA?  The same procedure is used as above.  A packet coming in with a COA that is one of the FA addresses’ is handled by the routing routine.  A host specific address (its own address) in the routing table points to the higher layers and the packet is passed on to a virtual interface.  The virtual interface consists of a process that decapsulates the packet and re-routes it to the routing routine.  The routing routine routes the packet normally based upon a host specific entry that is the MN’s home address (for which it has the link layer address!).

30. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.30 Routing/Tunneling 5/5  How does a MN route its packets?  It needs to find a router to send all its packets to.  It can select a router in one of a number of ways dependent upon whether it has a FA COA or a collocated COA.  Having a FA COA does not imply that the MN needs to use it as its default router for sending packets. It can use any router that sends advertisements or that is advertised in the Agent Advertisement message.  If the MN is using a collocated COA it needs to listen for router advertisements or is it hears none, use DHCP to find the default router.  Determining the link layer address is another issue. Collocated COA MNs can use ARP. FA COA must note the link layer address when they receive router advertisements or agent advertisements.

31. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.31 Encapsulation Process original IP headeroriginal data new datanew IP header outer headerinner headeroriginal data

32. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.32 Types of Encapsulation  Three types of encapsulation protocols are specified for Mobile IP:  IP-in-IP encapsulation: required to be supported. Full IP header added to the original IP packet. The new header contains HA address as source and Care of Address as destination.  Minimal encapsulation: optional. Requires less overhead but requires changes to the original header. Destination address is changed to Care of Address and Source IP address is maintained as is.  Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE): optional. Allows packets of a different protocol suite to be encapsulated by another protocol suite.  Type of tunneling/encapsulation supported is indicated in registration.

33. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.33 IP in IP Encapsulation  IP in IP encapsulation (mandatory in RFC 2003)  tunnel between HA and COA Care-of address COA IP address of HA TTL IP identification IP-in-IPIP checksum flagsfragment offset lengthTOSver.IHL IP address of MN IP address of CN TTL IP identification lay. 4 prot.IP checksum flagsfragment offset lengthTOSver.IHL TCP/UDP/... payload

34. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.34 Minimum Encapsulation  Minimal encapsulation (optional)  avoids repetition of identical fields  e.g. TTL, IHL, version, TOS  only applicable for unfragmented packets, no space left for fragment identification care-of address COA IP address of HA TTL IP identification min. encap.IP checksum flagsfragment offset lengthTOSver.IHL IP address of MN original sender IP address (if S=1) Slay. 4 protoc.IP checksum TCP/UDP/... payload reserved

35. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.35 Generic Routing Encapsulation original header original data new datanew header outer header GRE header original data original header Care-of address COA IP address of HA TTL IP identification GREIP checksum flagsfragment offset lengthTOSver.IHL IP address of MN IP address of CN TTL IP identification lay. 4 prot.IP checksum flagsfragment offset lengthTOSver.IHL TCP/UDP/... payload routing (optional) sequence number (optional) key (optional) offset (optional)checksum (optional) protocolrec.rsv.ver.CRKSs

36. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.36 Routing techniques  Triangle Routing: tunneling in its simplest form has all packets go to home network (HA) and then sent to MN via a tunnel.  This involves two IP routes that need to be set-up, one original and the second the tunnel route.  Causes unnecessary network overhead and adds to the latency.  Route optimization: allows the correstpondent node to learn the current location of the MN and tunnel its own packets directly. Problems arise with  mobility: correspondent node has to update/maintain its cache.  authentication: HA has to communicate with the correspondent node to do authentication, i.e., security association is with HA not with MN.

37. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.37 Optimization of packet forwarding  Change of FA  packets on-the-fly during the change can be lost  new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss, old FA now forwards remaining packets to new FA  this information also enables the old FA to release resources for the MN

38. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.38 Change of foreign agent CNHAFA old FA new MN t request update ACK data MN changes location registration update ACK data warning update ACK data registration

39. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.39 Problems with Triangle Routing  Triangle routing has the MN correspond directly with the CN using its home address as the SA  Firewalls at the foreign network may not allow that  Multicasting: if a MN is to participate in a multicast group, it needs to use a reverse tunnel to maintain its association with the home network.  TTL: a MN might have a TTL that is suitable for communication when it is in its HM. This TTL may not be sufficient when moving around (longer routes possibly). When using a reverse tunnel, it only counts as a single hop. A MN does not want to change the TTL everytime it moves.  Solution: reverse tunneling

40. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.40 Reverse tunneling (RFC 2344) Internet receiver FA HA MN home network foreign network sender 3 2 1 1. MN sends to FA 2. FA tunnels packets to HA by encapsulation 3. HA forwards the packet to the receiver (standard case) CN

41. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.41 Mobile IP with reverse tunneling  Routers accept often only “topologically correct“ addresses (firewall!)  a packet from the MN encapsulated by the FA is now topologically correct  Multicast and TTL problems solved  Reverse tunneling does not solve  all problems with firewalls, the reverse tunnel can be abused to circumvent security mechanisms (tunnel hijacking)  optimization of data paths, i.e. packets will be forwarded through the tunnel via the HA to a sender (longer routes)  The new standard is backwards compatible  the extensions can be implemented easily

42. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.42 Mobile IP and IPv6  Mobile IP was developed for IPv4, but IPv6 simplifies the protocols  security is integrated and not an add-on, authentication of registration is included  COA can be assigned via auto-configuration (DHCPv6 is one candidate), every node has address autoconfiguration  no need for a separate FA, all routers perform router advertisement which can be used instead of the special agent advertisement  MN can signal a sender directly the COA, sending via HA not needed in this case (automatic path optimization)  „soft“ hand-over, i.e. without packet loss, between two subnets is supported MN sends the new COA to its old router the old router encapsulates all incoming packets for the MN and forwards them to the new COA authentication is always granted

43. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.43 Problems with Mobile IP  Security  authentication with FA problematic, for the FA typically belongs to another organization  no protocol for key management and key distribution has been standardized in the Internet  patent and export restrictions  Firewalls  typically mobile IP cannot be used together with firewalls, special set-ups are needed (such as reverse tunneling)  QoS  many new reservations in case of RSVP  tunneling makes it hard to give a flow of packets a special treatment needed for the QoS  Security, firewalls, QoS etc. are topics of current research and discussions!

44. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.44 Security in Mobile IP  Security requirements (Security Architecture for the Internet Protocol, RFC 1825)  Integrity any changes to data between sender and receiver can be detected by the receiver  Authentication sender address is really the address of the sender and all data received is really data sent by this sender  Confidentiality only sender and receiver can read the data  Non-Repudiation sender cannot deny sending of data  Traffic Analysis creation of traffic and user profiles should not be possible  Replay Protection receivers can detect replay of messages

45. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.45 not encryptedencrypted IP security architecture 1/2  Two or more partners have to negotiate security mechanisms to setup a security association  typically, all partners choose the same parameters and mechanisms  Two headers have been defined for securing IP packets:  Authentication-Header guarantees integrity and authenticity of IP packets if asymmetric encryption schemes are used, non-repudiation can also be guaranteed  Encapsulation Security Payload protects confidentiality between communication partners Authentification-HeaderIP-HeaderUDP/TCP-Paketauthentication headerIP headerUDP/TCP data ESP headerIP headerencrypted data

46. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.46  Mobile Security Association for registrations  parameters for the mobile host (MH), home agent (HA), and foreign agent (FA)  Extensions of the IP security architecture  extended authentication of registration  prevention of replays of registrations time stamps: 32 bit time stamps + 32 bit random number responses: 32 bit random number (MH) + 32 bit random number (HA) registration reply registration request IP security architecture 2/2 MHFAHA registration reply MH-HA authentication MH-FA authenticationFA-HA authentication

47. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.47 Key distribution  Home agent distributes session keys  foreign agent has a security association with the home agent  mobile host registers a new binding at the home agent  home agent answers with a new session key for foreign agent and mobile node FAMH HA response: E HA-FA {session key} E HA-MH {session key}

48. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.48 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol  Application  simplification of installation and maintenance of networked computers  supplies systems with all necessary information, such as IP address, DNS server address, domain name, subnet mask, default router etc.  enables automatic integration of systems into an Intranet or the Internet, can be used to acquire a COA for Mobile IP  Client/Server-Model  the client sends via a MAC broadcast a request to the DHCP server (might be via a DHCP relay) clientrelay clientserver DHCPDISCOVER

49. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.49 DHCP - protocol mechanisms time server (not selected) client server (selected) initialization collection of replies selection of configuration initialization completed release confirmation of configuration delete context determine the configuration DHCPDISCOVER DHCPOFFER DHCPREQUEST (reject) DHCPACK DHCPRELEASE DHCPDISCOVER DHCPOFFER DHCPREQUEST (options) determine the configuration

50. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.50 DHCP characteristics  Server  several servers can be configured for DHCP, coordination not yet standardized (i.e., manual configuration)  Renewal of configurations  IP addresses have to be requested periodically, simplified protocol  Options  available for routers, subnet mask, NTP (network time protocol) timeserver, SLP (service location protocol) directory, DNS (domain name system)  Big security problems!  no authentication of DHCP information specified

51. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.51 Ad hoc networks  Standard Mobile IP needs an infrastructure  Home Agent/Foreign Agent in the fixed network  DNS, routing etc. are not designed for mobility  Sometimes there is no infrastructure!  remote areas, ad-hoc meetings, disaster areas  cost can also be an argument against an infrastructure!  Main topic: routing  no default router available  every node should be able to forward ABC

52. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.52 Routing examples for an ad-hoc network N1N1 N4N4 N2N2 N5N5 N3N3 N1N1 N4N4 N2N2 N5N5 N3N3 good link weak link time = t 1 time = t 2

53. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.53 Traditional routing algorithms  Distance Vector  periodic exchange of messages with all physical neighbors that contain information about who can be reached at what distance  selection of the shortest path if several paths available  Link State  periodic notification of all routers about the current state of all physical links  router get a complete picture of the network  Example  ARPA packet radio network (1973), DV-Routing every 7.5s exchange of routing tables including link quality updating of tables also by reception of packets routing problems solved with limited flooding

54. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.54 Problems of traditional routing algorithms  Dynamics of the topology  frequent changes of connections, connection quality, participants  Limited performance of mobile systems  periodic updates of routing tables need energy without contributing to the transmission of user data, sleep modes difficult to realize  limited bandwidth of the system is reduced even more due to the exchange of routing information  links can be asymmetric, i.e., they can have a direction dependent transmission quality  Problem  protocols have been designed for fixed networks with infrequent changes and typically assume symmetric links

55. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.55 DSDV (Destination Sequenced Distance Vector)  Expansion of distance vector routing  Sequence numbers for all routing updates  assures in-order execution of all updates  avoids loops and inconsistencies  Decrease of update frequency  store time between first and best announcement of a path  inhibit update if it seems to be unstable (based on the stored time values)

56. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.56 Dynamic source routing I  Split routing into discovering a path and maintainig a path  Discover a path  only if a path for sending packets to a certain destination is needed and no path is currently available  Maintaining a path  only while the path is in use one has to make sure that it can be used continuously  No periodic updates needed!

57. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.57 Dynamic source routing II  Path discovery  broadcast a packet with destination address and unique ID  if a station receives a broadcast packet if the station is the receiver (i.e., has the correct destination address) then return the packet to the sender (path was collected in the packet) if the packet has already been received earlier (identified via ID) then discard the packet otherwise, append own address and broadcast packet  sender receives packet with the current path (address list)  Optimizations  limit broadcasting if maximum diameter of the network is known  caching of address lists (i.e. paths) with help of passing packets stations can use the cached information for path discovery (own paths or paths for other hosts)

58. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.58 Dynamic Source Routing III  Maintaining paths  after sending a packet wait for a layer 2 acknowledgement (if applicable) listen into the medium to detect if other stations forward the packet (if possible) request an explicit acknowledgement  if a station encounters problems it can inform the sender of a packet or look-up a new path locally

59. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.59 Clustering of ad-hoc networks Internet super cluster cluster

60. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.60 Interference-based routing  Routing based on assumptions about interference between signals S1S1 N5N5 N3N3 N4N4 N1N1 N2N2 R1R1 R2R2 N6N6 N8N8 S2S2 N9N9 N7N7 neighbors (i.e. within radio range)

61. Winter 2001ICS 243E - Ch 6 Net. Protocols6.61 Examples for interference based routing  Least Interference Routing (LIR)  calculate the cost of a path based on the number of stations that can receive a transmission  Max-Min Residual Capacity Routing (MMRCR)  calculate the cost of a path based on a probability function of successful transmissions and interference  Least Resistance Routing (LRR)  calculate the cost of a path based on interference, jamming and other transmissions  LIR is very simple to implement, only information from direct neighbors is necessary