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WORLD WAR I 1914-1918.

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Presentation on theme: "WORLD WAR I 1914-1918."— Presentation transcript:

1 WORLD WAR I

2 UNDERLYING CAUSES OF WORLD WAR I
Nationalism France was determined to recover from Germany the French inhabited provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. Serbs, Czechs, and Slovaks sought freedom from Austria-Hungary (Pan-Slavism). Poles were divided among Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Germany, and they wanted to recreate a self-governing Polish state. Intense patriotism assured popular support for warlike measures.

3 Nationalism (Continued)
The French Revolution and the Napoleonic era had spread throughout most of Europe the idea of political democracy, with the resulting idea that people of the same ethnic origin, language, and political ideals had the right to independent states. The principle of national self-determination, however, was largely ignored by the dynastic and reactionary forces that dominated in the settlement of European affairs at the Congress of Vienna in Several peoples who desired national autonomy were made subject to local dynasts or to other nations. Notable examples were the German people, whom the Congress of Vienna left divided into numerous duchies, principalities, and kingdoms; Italy, also left divided into many parts, some of which were under foreign control; and the Flemish- and French-speaking Belgians of the Austrian Netherlands, whom the congress placed under Dutch rule. Revolutions and strong nationalistic movements during the 19th century succeeded in nullifying much of the reactionary and antinationalist work of the congress. Belgium won its independence from the Netherlands in 1830, the unification of Italy was accomplished in 1861, and that of Germany in At the close of the century, however, the problem of nationalism was still unresolved in other areas of Europe, resulting in tensions both within the regions involved and between various European nations. One particularly prominent nationalistic movement, Pan-slavism, figured heavily in the events preceding the war.

4 UNDERLYING CAUSES OF WORLD WAR I
Imperialism France and Germany clashed over Morocco. Russia and Austria-Hungary were rivals in the Balkans. Great Britain and Germany competed for control in the Middle East, Africa, and throughout the world.

5 Imperialism (Continued)
The spirit of nationalism was also manifest in economic conflict. The Industrial Revolution, which took place in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, followed in France in the early 19th century, and then in Germany after 1870, caused an immense increase in the manufactures of each country and a consequent need for foreign markets. The principal field for the European policies of economic expansion was Africa, and on that continent colonial interests frequently clashed. Several times between 1898 and 1914 the economic rivalry in Africa between France and Great Britain, and between Germany on one side and France and Great Britain on the other, almost precipitated a European war.

6 UNDERLYING CAUSES OF WORLD WAR I
Militarism European nations each sought military superiority. Germany had a military tradition and exhibited armed might. Great Britain felt threatened by Germany’s massive navy building program.

7 Militarism (Continued)
As a result of such tensions, between 1871 and 1914 the nations of Europe adopted domestic measures and foreign policies that in turn steadily increased the danger of war. Convinced that their interests were threatened, they maintained large standing armies, which they constantly replenished and augmented by peacetime conscription. At the same time, they increased the size of their navies. The naval expansion was intensely competitive. Great Britain, influenced by the expansion of the German navy begun in 1900 and by the events of the Russo-Japanese War, developed its fleet under the direction of Admiral Sir John Fisher. The war between Russia and Japan had proved the efficacy of long-range naval guns, and the British accordingly developed the widely copied dreadnought battleship, notable for its heavy armament. Developments in other areas of military technology and organization led to the dominance of general staffs with precisely formulated plans for mobilization and attack, often in situations that could not be reversed once begun.

8 UNDERLYING CAUSES OF WORLD WAR I
International Anarchy No international organization existed with authority to compel nations to obey its decisions. The Hague, a tribunal to settle international disputes, depended on voluntary acceptance of its authority and was ineffective.

9 International Anarchy (Continued)
Statesmen everywhere realized that the tremendous and ever-growing expenditures for armament would in time lead either to national bankruptcy or to war, and they made several efforts for worldwide disarmament, notably at the Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907. International rivalry was, however, too far advanced to permit any progress toward disarmament at these conferences.

10 UNDERLYING CAUSES OF WORLD WAR I
Alliances Triple Alliance (1882)—consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, & Italy. Triple Entente (1907)—consisted of Great Britain, France, & Russia.

11 Alliances (continued)
The European nations not only armed themselves for purposes of "self-defense," but also, in order not to find themselves standing alone if war did break out, sought alliances with other powers. The result was a phenomenon that in itself greatly increased the chances for generalized war: the grouping of the great European powers into two hostile military alliances, the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy and the Triple Entente of Great Britain, France, and Russia. Shifts within these alliances added to the building sense of crisis.

12 Check out more about the causes of World War I from my colleague
Mr. Michael Duffy: Causes of World War I Check out this crossword puzzle about the causes of World War I from my colleague Mrs. Heather Wheeler: Crossword of Causes of WW I

13 Pan-Slavism 19th-century movement that recognized a common ethnic background among the various Slav peoples of eastern and east central Europe and sought to unite those peoples for the achievement of common cultural and political goals.

14 The Balkan Crisis  The two rival alliances came to blows over the Balkans, where the interests of Austria-Hungary and Russia directly collided. In that complex area, the forces of local nationalism drew the great powers into a military showdown.  Austria and Russia had long kept a wary eye on each other's policies in southeastern Europe. During the nineteenth century each country had had an obsessive interest in the Balkan holdings of the Ottoman Empire. Neither side could afford for the other to gain too great an advantage in the area. Throughout the last part of the nineteenth century the two had occasionally disagreed over issues involving Macedonia, railroads, and boundary revisions. In 1908 a crisis erupted that threatened to draw Europe into war. The issue that increased hostility was the Dual Monarchy's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.  The Austro-Hungarian monarchy had administered the two areas since the 1878 Congress of Berlin, so the annexation actually changed very little. But the Slavs perceived the annexation as humiliating to them and their "protector," Russia. The fact that the Russians, through an ill-considered plan, had initiated the train of events that led to the annexation made the whole affair doubly frustrating for the Slavs. Bosnia and Herzegovina were annexed, but the Russians never got their part of the bargain. Serbia was outraged by the incorporation of more Slavs into the Habsburg domain and expected its Slavic, Orthodox protector, Russia, to do something about it. The Russians had been badly bruised in their war with Japan and the Revolution of Aside from making threatening noises, they could do little, especially in the face of Germany's support for Austria-Hungary.  Austro-Hungarian interests in the Balkans were primarily concerned with defense and keeping Serbia under control. The Dual Monarchy was experiencing serious domestic strains as the multinational empire limped along under the terms of the renegotiated Ausgleich. Austro-Hungarian pretensions to great power status increasingly outdistanced its ability to play that role.

15 The Balkan Crisis (Continued)
Germany's motives in the Balkans were largely strategic in the long term and diplomatic in the short term. The Germans envisioned a Berlin-based political and economic zone stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Persian Gulf. Berlin could not afford to alienate its Austrian ally through lukewarm support.  After 1908 tensions remained high in the Balkans. The Austrians looked to increase their advantage, knowing they had the full support of Germany. Serbia searched for revenge, while Russia found itself backed into a corner. The Russians in the future would be forced to act strongly and encourage aggressive policies on the part of their Balkan allies or lose forever their position of prestige. The 1908 crisis changed relatively few of the major features of the competition for influence in the Balkans, except to limit further the major powers' options.  In 1912 Serbia and its neighbors, especially Greece and Bulgaria, formed an alliance with the objective of expelling Turkey from Europe. The First Balkan War began later in the year and came to a quick end with the defeat of the Turks. Each of the Balkan allies had its own particular goals in mind in fighting the Ottomans. When the great powers stepped in to maintain the balance, problems arose.  Serbia had fought for a seaport and thought it had gained one with the defeat of the Turks. However, the Italians and Austrians blocked Serbia's access to the Adriatic by overseeing the creation of Albania in the Treaty of London of 1913. Denied their goals, the Serbs turned on their former ally, the Bulgarians, and demanded a part of their spoils from the first war. Bulgaria refused and, emboldened by its successes in the first war, attacked its former allies, starting the Second Balkan War. The Serbs were in turn joined by the Romanians and the Turks. The Bulgarians were no match for the rest of the Balkans and signed a peace which turned over most of the territory that they had earlier gained. The Turks retained only a precarious toehold in Europe, the small pocket from Adrianople to Constantinople.  Had the great powers found a way to place a fence around the Balkans and allow the squabbling nations to fight their miniwars in isolation, then the two Balkan wars of 1912 and 1913 would have had little significance. As it was, however, they added to the prevailing state of tension. The two competing alliances effectively tied their policies to the narrow constraints of the Balkans. In effect, the tail wagged the dog, as the alliances reacted to every flare-up in the turbulent peninsula.  By the end of 1913 no permanent solution had been found to the Balkan problems. Austria was more fearful than ever of Serbia's expansionist desires. Serbian ambitions had grown larger since its territory had doubled as a result of the recent wars. The Serbian prime minister declared: "The first round is won: now we must prepare the second against Austria." Russia's dreams of Balkan grandeur had not been blocked but only interrupted. The rest of Europe lay divided.

16 Foreshadowing of War (1905-1914)
With Europe divided into two hostile camps, any disturbance of the existing political or military situation in Europe, Africa, or elsewhere provoked an international incident. Between 1905 and 1914 several international crises and two local wars occurred, all of which threatened to bring about a general European War. The first crisis occurred over Morocco, where Germany intervened in to support Moroccan independence against French encroachment. France threatened war against Germany, but the crisis was finally settled by an international conference at Algeciras, Spain, in Another crisis took place in the Balkans in 1908 over the annexation by Austria-Hungary of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Because one form of Pan-slavism was a Pan-Serbian or Greater Serbia movement in Serbia, which had as one of its objects the acquisition by Serbia of the southern part of Bosnia, the Serbs threatened war against Austria. War was avoided only because Serbia could not fight without Russian support, and Russia at the time was unprepared for war. A third crisis, again in Morocco, occurred in 1911 when the German government sent a warship to Agadir in protest against French efforts to secure supremacy in Morocco. After threats of war on both sides, the matter was adjusted by a conference at Agadir. Taking advantage of the preoccupation of the Great Powers with the Moroccan question, Italy declared war on Turkey in 1911, hoping to annex the Tripoli region of northern Africa. Because Germany's policy of Drang nach Osten ("drive toward the East") obliged it to cultivate friendship with Turkey, the Italian attack had the effect of weakening the triple alliance and encouraging its enemies.

17 Foreshadowing of War (1905-1914)
The Balkan Wars of resulted in an increased desire on the part of Serbia to obtain the parts of Austria-Hungary inhabited by Slavic peoples, strengthened Austro-Hungarian suspicion of Serbia, and left Bulgaria and Turkey, both defeated in the wars, with a desire for revenge. Germany, disappointed because Turkey (Ottomans) had been deprived of its European territory by the Balkan Wars, increased the size of its army. France responded by increasing peacetime military service from two to three years. Following the example of these nations, all the others of Europe in 1913 and 1914 spent huge sums for military preparedness.

18 “Powder Keg of Europe” Europe had been at peace for many years by the spring of There had not been a multinational war since Napoleon’s defeat 99 years earlier. Germany, France, and Russia fought minor wars, but they were of little consequence. Ethnic minorities chafed in Austria-Hungary, the final remnant of the Holy Roman Empire, but it was reasonable in 1914 to assume that Europe would remain peaceful for many years. That assumption would be false. Europe in 1914 is often compared to a powder keg: safe and secure until a fuse is lit. That summer, a minor event lit a fuse that exploded across the entire continent. The result was known as “the Great War,” the greatest and most destructive conflict then known to humankind. Europe dissolved into many cultures at the end of the Roman Empire. Several smaller empires emerged, but none matched the power and glory of Rome. By the turn of the twentieth-century, most of the smaller states of Europe combined or were conquered into larger nation-states. Germany and Italy became unified nations in the latter part of the nineteenth century. They joined Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, and Russia as European world powers. These nations were filled with nationalism, or great national pride. They expanded their borders by building imperial colonies in Africa and Asia. Most Europeans believed their nation to be superior to any other, and many were willing to go to war to demonstrate their will.

19 Archduke Franz Ferdinand
He was the future heir to the Austrian throne. He and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were assassinated during the feast of St. Vitus on June 28, 1914. The archduke and his wife were visiting the Bosnian town of Sarajevo which his realm had annexed in 1908. Franz Ferdinand

20 Archduke Franz Ferdinand (Continued)
There was talk of an assassination attempt by ethnic Serbians in Sarajevo, but the Archduke and his wife wandered through the city believing they were safe. The Black Hand proved otherwise. The Black Hand was an ethnic Serbian terrorist organization composed mainly of teenagers. Several Black Hand terrorists were in Sarajevo with orders to kill the Archduke. That morning, one terrorist attempted to throw a bomb into the Archduke’s car. The driver sped up. The bomb bounced off the Archduke’s arm and landed behind the crowd. Several people in the crowd were injured. The next car in the procession was destroyed. The Archduke gave a speech, and then changed his plans to visit the city. He wanted go to the hospital to visit the people wounded in the attack. The Archduke’s driver was unfamiliar with the route and had taken a wrong turn. The car slowed to a halt in front of a café, where Gavrilo Princip sat sipping coffee only five feet away. Princip was a Black Hand terrorist who thought the opportunity to kill the Archduke had passed. Suddenly and by coincidence, he was presented with another chance. Princip shot three times, killing the Archduke and his wife.

21 Gavrilo Princip Gavrilo Princip A high school student who was hired by members of the Black Hand to assassinate Franz Ferdinand.

22 Black Hand A Serbian terrorist group whose goal was to free Slavic (Serbs) people living under Austrian rule.

23 More information than you ever wanted on Princip and the assassination
Gavrilo Princip, the son of a postman, was born in Bosnia-Herzegovina in July, Gavrilo was one of nine children, six of whom died in infancy. His health was poor and from an early age suffered from tuberculosis.  Princip attended schools in Sarajevo and Tuzla, but in May 1912, left Bosnia for Belgrade to continue his education. While in Serbia Princip joined the Black Handsecret society. For the next two years he spent most of his spare time with other nationalists who also favoured a union between Bosnia-Herzegovina and Serbia.  When it was announced that Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne ofAustro-Hungarian Empire, was going to visit Bosnia-Herzegovina in June 1914,Dragutin Dimitrijevic, the chief of the Intelligence Department in the Serbian Army and head of the Black Hand, sent three men, Princip, Nedjelko Cabrinovic, andTrifko Grabez to Sarajevo to assassinate him.  Each man was given a revolver, two bombs and small vial of cyanide. They were instructed to commit suicide after Archduke Franz Ferdinand had been killed. It was important to Dragutin Dimitrijevic that the men did not have the opportunity to confess who had organised the assassination. Princip, Nedjelko Cabrinovic and Trifko Grabez were suffering from tuberculosis and knew they would not live long. They were therefore willing to give their life for what they believed was a great cause, Bosnia-Herzegovina achieving independence from Austro-Hungary.  Nikola Pasic, the prime minister of Serbia, heard about the plot and gave instructions for Princip and the other two men, Nedjelko Cabrinovic and Trifko Grabez to be arrested when they attempted to leave the country. However, his orders were not implemented and the three man arrived in Bosnia-Herzegovina where they joined forces with fellow conspirators, Muhamed Mehmedbasic, Danilo Ilic, Vaso Cubrilovic, Cvijetko Popovic, Misko Jovanovic and Veljko Cubrilovic.  On Sunday, 28th June, 1914, Franz Ferdinand and Sophie von Chotkovato arrived in Sarajevo by train. GeneralOskar Potiorek, Governor of the Austrian provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina, was waiting to take the royal party to the City Hall for the official reception.  In the front car was Fehim Curcic, the Mayor of Sarajevo and Dr. Gerde, the city's Commissioner of Police. Franz Ferdinand and Sophie von Chotkovato were in the second car with Oskar Potiorek and Count von Harrach. The car's top was rolled back in order to allow the crowds a good view of its occupants.  Seven members of the Black Hand group lined the route. They were spaced out along the Appel Quay, each one had been instructed to try and kill Franz Ferdinand when the royal car reached his position. The first conspirator on the route to see the royal car was Muhamed Mehmedbasic. Standing by the Austro-Hungarian Bank, Mehmedbasic lost his nerve and allowed the car pass without taking action. Mehmedbasic later said that a policeman was standing behind him and feared he would be arrested before he had a chance to throw his bomb.  The next man on the route was Nedjelko Cabrinovic. At Cabrinovic stepped forward and hurled his bomb at the archduke's car. The driver accelerated when he saw the object flying towards him and the bomb exploded under the wheel of the next car. Two of the occupants, Eric von Merizzi and Count Boos-Waldeck were seriously wounded. About a dozen spectators were also hit by bomb splinters.  After throwing his bomb, Nedjelko Cabrinovic swallowed the cyanide he was carrying and jumped into the River Miljacka. Four men, including two detectives, followed him in and managed to arrest him. The poison failed to kill him and he was taken to the local police station.  Franz Ferdinand's driver, Franz Urban, drove on extremely fast and other members of the Black Hand group on the route decided that it was useless to try and kill the archduke when the car was going at this speed.  After attending the official reception at the City Hall, Franz Ferdinand asked about the members of his party that had been wounded by the bomb. When the archduke was told they were badly injured in hospital, he insisted on being taken to see them. A member of the archduke's staff, Baron Morsey, suggested this might be dangerous, but Oskar Potiorek, who was responsible for the safety of the royal party, replied, "Do you think Sarajevo is full of assassins?" However, Potiorek did accept it would be better if Duchess Sophie remained behind in the City Hall. When Baron Morsey told Sophie about the revised plans, she refused to stay arguing: "As long as the Archduke shows himself in public today I will not leave him." In order to avoid the city centre, General Oskar Potiorek decided that the royal car should travel straight along the Appel Quay to the Sarajevo Hospital. However, Potiorek forgot to tell the driver, Franz Urban, about this decision. On the way to the hospital, Urban took a right turn into Franz Joseph Street. Princip happened to be was standing on the corner at the time. Oskar Potiorek immediately realised the driver had taken the wrong route and shouted "What is this? This is the wrong way! We're supposed to take the Appel Quay!".  The driver put his foot on the brake, and began to back up. In doing so he moved slowly past the waiting Princip. He stepped forward, drew his gun, and at a distance of about five feet, fired several times into the car. Franz Ferdinandwas hit in the neck and Sophie von Chotkovato in the abdomen. Princip's bullet had pierced the archduke's jugular vein but before losing consciousness, he pleaded "Sophie dear! Sophie dear! Don't die! Stay alive for our children!" Franz Urban drove the royal couple to Konak, the governor's residence, but although both were still alive when they arrived, they died from their wounds soon afterwards.  After shooting Franz Ferdinand and Sophie von Chotkovato, Princip, following instructions, turned his gun on himself. A man behind him saw what he was doing, and seized Princip's right arm. A couple of policeman joined the struggle and Princip was arrested.  Princip and Nedjelko Cabrinovic were both interrogated by the police. They eventually gave the names of their fellow conspirators. Muhamed Mehmedbasic managed to escape to Serbia but Trifko Grabez, Danilo Ilic, Vaso Cubrilovic,Cvijetko Popovic, Misko Jovanovic and Veljko Cubrilovic were arrested and charged with treason and murder.  Eight of the men charged with treason and the murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand were found guilty. Under Austro-Hungarian law, capital punishment could not be imposed on someone who was under the age of twenty when they had committed the crime. Princip therefore received the maximum penalty of twenty years. Gavrilo Princip died oftuberculosis on 28th April 1918. 

24 More information than you ever wanted to know on the Black Hand
On October 8, 1908, just two days after Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, many men, some of them ranking Serbian ministers, officials and generals, held a meeting at City Hall in Belgrade. They founded a semi-secret society -- Narodna Odbrana (National Defense) which gave Pan-Slavism a focus and an organization. The purpose of the group was to recruit and train partisans for a possible war between Serbia and Austria. They also undertook anti-Austrian propaganda and organized spies and saboteurs to operate within the empire's provinces. Satellite groups were formed in Slovinia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Istria. The Bosnian group went under the name Mlada Bosna -- Young Bosnia. Narodna Odbrana's work had been so effective that in 1909 a furious Austria pressured the Serbian government to put a stop to their anti-Austrian insurrection. Russia was not ready to stand fully behind Serbia should things come to a showdown, so Belgrade was grudgingly forced to comply. From then on, Narodna Odbrana concentrated on education and propaganda within Serbia, trying to fashion itself as a cultural organization.The Birth of the Black Hand Many members formed a new, and again secret, organization to continue the terrorist actions. Ten men met on May 9, 1911 to form Ujedinjenje ili Smrt (Union or Death), also known as The Black Hand. The seal of their group is reproduced above.  By 1914, there were several hundred members, perhaps as many as Many members were Serbian army officers. The professed goal of the group was the creation of a Greater Serbia, by use of violence, if necessary. The Black Hand trained guerillas and saboteurs and arranged political murders. The Black Hand was organized at the grassroots level in 3 to 5-member cells. Above them were district committees. Above them, was the Central committee in Belgrade. At the top was the ten-member Executive Committee led, more or less, by Colonial Dragutin Dimitrijevic, (also known as Apis ). Members rarely knew much more than the members of their own cell and one superior above them, to ensure that the group's leaders would remain secret. New members swore "...before God, on my honor and my life, that I will execute all missions and commands without question. I swear before God, on my honor and on my life, that I will take all the secrets of this organization into my grave with me." The Black Hand took over the terrorist actions of Narodna Odbrana , and worked deliberately at obscuring any distinctions between the two groups, trading on the prestige and network of the older organization. Black Hand members held important army and government positions. Crown Prince Alexander was an enthusiastic and financial supporter. The group held influence over government appointment and policy. The Serbian government was fairly well informed of Black Hand activities. Friendly relations had fairly well cooled by The Black Hand was displeased with Prime minister Nikola Pasic. They thought he did not act aggressively enough towards the Pan-Serb cause. They engaged in a bitter power struggle over several issues, such as who would control territories Serbia annexed in the Balkan Wars. By this point, standing up and saying 'no' to the Black Hand was a dangerous act. Political murder was one of their well known tools. It was also in 1914 that Apis decided that Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir-apparent of Austria, should be assassinated. Towards that end, three young Bosnian-Serbs were recruited and trained in bomb throwing and marksmanship. Princip, Cabrinovic' and Grabez were smuggled across the border back into Bosnia via a chain of underground-railroad style contacts. The decision to kill the Archduke was apparently initiated by Apis, and not sanctioned by the full Executive Committee. Those involved probably realized that their plot would invite war between Austria and Serbia. They had every reason to expect that Russia would side with Serbia. In all likelihood, they did not anticipate that their little war would mushroom into world war. Others in the government and some on the Black Hand Executive Council were not as confident of Russian aid. Russia had let them down recently. When word of the plot percolated through Black Hand leadership and the Serbian government, Apis was told not to proceed. He made a half-hearted attempt to intercept the young assassins at the border, but they had already crossed. This 'recall' appears to make Apis look like a loose cannon, and the young assassins as independent zealots. In fact, the 'recall' took place a full two weeks before the Archduke's visit. The assassins idled around in Sarajevo for a month. Nothing more was done to stop them. The extensive network of contacts that smuggled them into Sarajevo, fed and housed them, was not utilized to stop them. This calls into question the Black Hand's and the Serbian government's desire that the plot truly be cancelled. The Assassination Of the seven young men involved, Princip succeeded in killing the Archduke. (Read the Sarajevo, June 28, 1914 article for a fuller account of the assassination.) The careful secrecy of the Black Hand delayed its being found out as the instigator of the crime until many weeks later. By that time, the guilt for the crime had settled loosely on Serbia in general. Tensions between Serbia and Austria eventually drew in the other European powers and escalated into world war. Towards the end of 1916, Prime Minister Pasic decided to destroy the leaders of the Black Hand and break up the organization. By the spring of 1917, many Black Hand leaders, including Apis, had been arrested. A sham trial before a military tribunal was held in May 1917 for Apis and others. Among the charges was that the Black Hand had attempted to murder Prince Regent Alexander. Though the number of witnesses against them were numerous, the evidence cited was nearly all hearsay or outright fabrications. Apis and six others were sentenced to death. Three obtained commutations to long prison terms, but Apis and three comrades were executed by firing squad on June 26, 1917. In June 1917, the Black Hand was outlawed. Intriguing and insurrection, by their very nature, however, are not bothered by legalities. A new organization -- The White Hand -- was formed from trustworthy men of Narodna Odbrana . It continued the imperialistic work of the Black Hand, using the same techniques. The death of Vojislav Petrovic, an ex-attache to the Yugoslav Legation in London, was said to be the work of Narodna Odbrana . Petrovic was preparing a book on the history of the Sarajevo assassinations and the Black Hand.  In what became Yugoslavia after the war, the White Hand grew into an essential piece of the state's machinery.

25 Although the assassination of Franz Ferdinand had not occurred in Serbia, Austria-Hungary still held the Serbians responsible and were determine to punish them. The Austro-Hungarian government, considering the assassination the work of the Greater Serbian movement, concluded that the movement must be suppressed by a military expedition into Serbia. Otherwise it might become powerful enough, particularly if aided by similar movements elsewhere, to cause the disruption of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. 

26 Leopold von Berchtold Foreign minister of Austria-Hungary.
Believed that the assassination in Bosnia of Archduke Franz Ferdinand justified crushing the anti-Austrian propaganda and terrorism coming from the Serbs. Leopold von Berchtold

27 Austria-Hungary feared that Russia would intervene on Serbia’s behalf.
Berchtold will contact Kaiser William II of Germany to make sure of German support if Austria-Hungary takes any actions against Serbia. Kaiser William II gives a “blank check” saying that Austria-Hungary could count on Germany’s “full support…if matters went to the length of a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia.” Leopold von Berchtold Kaiser William II

28 Ultimatum Strengthened by German support (“blank check”) Austria-Hungary will issue an ultimatum to Serbia on July 23, 1914. A final offer in diplomacy that threatens severe penalties if it is not accepted.

29 Diplomacy as a result of the Berchtold Ultimatum
On July 23 Austria-Hungary sent an ultimatum to Serbia submitting ten specific demands, most of which had to do with the suppression, with Austrian help, of anti-Austrian propaganda in Serbia. Urged by both Great Britain and Russia, Serbia on July 25 accepted all but two of the demands, but Austria declared the Serbian reply to be unsatisfactory. The Russians then attempted to persuade Austria to modify the terms of the ultimatum, declaring that if Austria marched on Serbia, Russia would mobilize against Austria. A proposal, on July 26, by the British foreign minister, Sir Edward Grey, Viscount Grey of Fallodon, that a conference of Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy settle the Austro-Serbian dispute, was rejected by Germany.

30 Diplomacy as a result of the Berchtold Ultimatum (Continued)
The Germans, having second thoughts, urged their ally to negotiate with Russia, which was anxiously following developments. Russia realized that if the Austrians succeeded in humbling the Serbs, Russia's position in the Balkans would suffer irreparably. The French, in the meantime, assured the Russians of their full cooperation and urged full support for Serbia. The British unsuccessfully advised negotiation.  Europe had reached a point of no return: the Austrians had committed themselves to the task of removing a serious opponent, and the Russians could not permit this removal to happen. Neither side would back down, and each had allies ready to come to its aid. Fearful that Serbia would escape from his clutches, Berchtold succeeded on July 27 - thanks in part to deception - in convincing the Habsburg emperor that war was the only way out. On the following day, July 28, 1914, the Austro-Hungarian empire declared war against Serbia.  As the possibilities of a general European war loomed, Berlin sent several frantic telegrams to Vienna. The German ambassador was instructed to tell Berchtold that "as an ally we must refuse to be drawn into a world conflagration because Austria does not respect our advice."  Had the Germans spoken to their ally in such tones a month earlier, war might have been avoided. But Austria's belligerence moved the Russians to act. The Tsar ordered mobilization on July 30.

31 Severance of Diplomatic Relations The nations that formally severed diplomatic relations, whether later declaring war or not, are as follows: Aug. 26, Austria against Japan March 16, Austria against Portugal July 26, Austria against Serbia April 8, Austria against United States April 14, Bolivia against Germany April 11, Brazil against Germany March 14, China against Germany Sept. 21, Costa Rica against Germany Dec. 7, Ecuador against Germany Aug. 13, Egypt against Germany Aug. 10, France against Austria July 2, Greece against Austria July 2, Greece against Turkey April 27, Guatemala against Germany June 17, Haiti against Germany May 17, Honduras against Germany May 18, Nicaragua against Germany Oct. 6, Peru against Germany June 8, Santo Domingo against Germany April 20, Turkey against United States Feb. 3, United States against Germany Oct. 7, Uruguay against Germany

32 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia
July 28, 1914 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia July 29, 1914 Russia mobilizes to protect Serbia Germany moves to support Austria-Hungary and stop Russia August 1, 1914 Germany declares war on Russia

33 August 2, 1914 German ambassador in Brussels delivered an ultimatum to the Belgian government announcing his country's intention to send troops through Belgium

34 Germany declares war on France Germany invades neutral Belgium
August 3, 1914 Germany declares war on France August 4, 1914 Germany invades neutral Belgium Belgium declares war on Germany August 5, 1914 Great Britain declares war on Germany Montenegro declares war on Austria-Hungary

35 Serbia declares war on Germany Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia
August 6, 1914 Serbia declares war on Germany Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia August 8, 1914 Montenegro declares war on Germany August 13, 1914 Great Britain declares war on Austria-Hungary France declares war on Austria-Hungary

36 According to the U.S State Department's list, the nations involved in the conflict made declarations of war as follows: Aug. 28, Austria against Belgium Aug. 27, Austria against Japan Aug. 9, Austria against Montenegro Aug. 6, Austria against Russia July 28, Austria against Serbia Aug. 4, Belgium against Germany Oct. 26, Brazil against Germany Oct. 14, Bulgaria against Serbia Aug. 14, China against Austria Aug. 14, China against Germany May 23, Costa Rica against Germany Apr. 7, Cuba against Germany Dec. 16, Cuba against Austria-Hungary Aug. 13, France against Austria Oct. 16, France against Bulgaria Aug. 3, France against Germany Nov. 5, France against Turkey Aug. 4, Germany against Belgium Aug. 3, Germany against France Mar. 9, Germany against Portugal Sept. 14, Germany against Rumania Aug. 1, Germany against Russia Aug. 13, Great Britain against Austria Oct. 15, Great Britain against Bulgaria Aug. 4, Great Britain against Germany Nov. 5, Great Britain against Turkey Nov. 28, Greece (Provincial Government) against Bulgaria July 2, Greece against Bulgaria Nov. 28, Greece (Provincial Government) against Germany July 02, Greece against Germany Apr. 22, Guatemala against Austria-Hungary Apr. 22, Guatemala against Germany July 15, Haiti against Germany July 19, Honduras against Germany May 24, Italy against Austria Oct. 19, Italy against Bulgaria Aug. 28, Italy against Germany Aug. 21, Italy against Turkey Aug. 23, Japan against Germany Aug. 4, Liberia against Germany Aug. 8, Montenegro against Austria

37 According to the U.S State Department's list, the nations involved in the conflict made declarations of war as follows: (continued) Aug. 9, Montenegro against Germany May 24, Nicaragua against Germany Dec. 10, Panama against Austria Apr. 7, Panama against Germany Nov. 23, Portugal against Germany (authorizing intervention) May 19, Portugal against Germany (granting military aid) Aug. 27, Rumania against Austria (accepted by Austria's allies) Oct. 19, Russia against Bulgaria Aug. 7, Russia against Germany Nov. 3, Russia against Turkey May 24, San Marino against Austria Oct. 16, Serbia against Bulgaria Aug. 6, Serbia against Germany Dec. 2, Serbia against Turkey July 22, Siam against Austria July 22, Siam against Germany Nov. 23, Turkey against Allies Aug. 29, Turkey against Rumania Dec. 7, United States against Austria-Hungary Apr. 6, United States against Germany

38 World War I Although the terrible struggle that racked the world from 1914 to 1918 was fought mainly in Europe, it is rightly called the First World War. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries European powers had competed across the globe; however, never had so many fighters and such enormous resources been brought together in a single conflict. Altogether twenty-seven nations became belligerents, ranging the globe from Japan to Canada and from Argentina to South Africa to Australia. The Central Powers - German, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey - mobilized 21 million men. The Allies eventually called 40 million men to arms, including 12 million Russians. The two sides were more equally matched than the numbers would indicate, however. Since the Russian divisions were often poorly equipped and ineffectively used, the Allies' apparent advantage was not so great as numbers would indicate. In addition, in the German army the Central Powers boasted superb generalship and discipline. Another advantage was that the Central Powers fought from a central position and were able to transfer troops quickly and efficiently to various fronts.

39 CENTRAL POWERS Germany Austria-Hungary Ottoman Empire (later Turkey)
Bulgaria

40 ALLIED POWERS Great Britain France Russia Serbia Belgium Montenegro
Japan 1914 Italy 1915 United States 1917 Altogether 27 nations would become belligerents

41 Allied Powers Neutral Powers Central Powers

42 World War I The warring nations went into battle in a confident mood. Each side was sure of its strength and felt it had prepared carefully. Each nation's propaganda machine delivered reassuring messages of guaranteed victory. All expected that the war would soon be over, concluded in a few decisive battles. It was generally believed that the war would be over by Christmas 1914. All of the general staffs had been refining their war plans for years. The Germans knew that Allied naval supremacy would cut them off from needed sources abroad. They realized that they were potentially surrounded and that they should strike a quick knockout blow to end the war.

43 SCHLIEFFEN PLAN Following the plan devised by Chief of the General Staff Alfred von Schlieffen, the Germans aimed to push the Belgians aside and drive rapidly south into France. They hoped to use a “hammer and anvil” tactic. Alfred von Schlieffen

44 SCHLIEFFEN PLAN This plan was a reaction to the German notion of encirclement. Any war for Germany would be a two front war. This plan would ensure a quick, 42 days to be exact, victory over France before their ally, Russia, could complete its mobilization. This would allow the German army to then concentrate all forces to the east in order to crush their second enemy, Russia. Four armies, one million men, would comprise the arc. The path of which was characterized by its creator: "Let the last man on the right brush the channel with his sleeve.“ The weak part of this plan was the intentional violation of Belgian neutrality. Both Germany and Britain were among the signers of the 1839 treaty ensuring this neutrality. Bismarck warned that this violation would be folly in that it would drag Britain into the conflict. The map above shows the planned arc towards the Channel. The darker arrows show the actual path of invasion. Moltke did not heed Schlieffen's dying words: "Keep the right wing strong!" The plan then called for the German forces to wheel west of Paris, outflank the French forces, and drive them toward Alsace-Lorraine, where they would be met by another German army. Within six weeks, the French would be destroyed, caught between the western hammer and the eastern anvil. Meanwhile, a small German force would be holding the presumably slow-moving Russians on the eastern front, awaiting the arrival via the excellent German rail system of the victorious western forces.

45 Schliffen Plan

46 REASONS SCHLIFFEN PLAN WAS DOOMED FROM THE BEGINNING
Resistance in Belgium German troops were led by General Helmuth von Moltke and they were delayed on their advance until August 20, 1914 Quick Russian Mobilization Russia mobilized faster than expected and this forced Germany to move two divisions of troops to the eastern front.

47 France’s War Plan (Plan XVII)
French war plan The French, never able to dispel the humiliating defeat of 1871, put first and foremost in their plan the retaking of the lost provinces of Alsace-Lorraine. The plan was based on the teachings of Lieutenant Colonel Louzeau de Grandmaison, director of the Bureau of Military Operations and prominent member of the "School of Attack". The plan was adopted by the General Staff in 1913 and further developed by Joffre right up to the summer of 1914. Plan XVII was based on the notion of elan, the utter spirit to win. To best understand this notion, let's look at some of the catch phrases from the day: "The will to conquer is the first condition of victory." "Offensive to the maximum!" "Offensive without hesitation!" "The offensive alone leads to positive results." The plan, which was full of flaws, had one major flaw in particular - it massed the French army to the south, away from where the brunt of the German attack would come. It couldn't have been worse for the French or better for the Germans.

48 Austria-Hungary’s War Plan
Austria-Hungary's war plans also had two variations; one against the Balkans , and one against both Russia and the Balkans. The first plan was considered the most probable and concentrated three armies to invade Serbia and Montenegro, while three other armies took defensive positions in Galicia against a possible Russian attack. Variation R, the plan which was put into effect on August 1, 1914, concentrated four armies against Russia on the Galician frontier, and only two against the Serbians.

49 Belgium’s War Plan Belgium's field army of 117,000 men would concentrate west of the Meuse to defend Antwerp. The main effort of the field army would be to avoid battle with superior forces, and to maintain contact with Antwerp. It also mustered some 67,000 fortress troops to man the forts at Liege, Namur and Antwerp. Liege and Namur defended the principal crossings on the Meuse River and were vital to the defense of Belgium.

50 Great Britain’s War Plan
The British, unlike the continental powers did not have universal service. Therefore, their available army forces on mobilization were limited to their regular army fleshed out with their immediately available reserves. This consisted of two army corps of three divisions each, a cavalry division and supporting artillery and service forces. Their plans called for this force to be transported to the continent and then transported by French railroads to a concentration area on the left flank of the French near Maubege. It was planned that this force would be available on the 21st day after mobilization.

51 Russia’s War Plan The Russian mobilization, which triggered the war, supported two variations of war plans. One variation was to be used in the event of a war with Austria-Hungary and Germany only, and the other was to be used if Germany attacked France. The latter variation was the one used and was designed to attack East Prussia from concentrations in the Polish Salient by the 15th day after mobilization. It also mobilized four additional armies against Austria-Hungary in Galicia. The Northwestern Group concentrated in the Polish Salient was to consist of the First and Second Armies and their mission was to defeat the German forces in East Prussia and seize German territory as far as the River Vistula. The Southwestern Group consisted of four Russian Armies. Its mission was to inflict a decisive defeat on the Austria-Hungarian armies concentrated in Galicia. The Russian mobilization plan envisioned 42 mobilized infantry divisions by the 15th day and 78 by the 35 day of mobilization.

52 Serbia’s War Plan Serbian War plans called for the entire Serbian army of five active division increased to ten on mobilization to be concentrated in the region around Belgrade (the capital of Serbia and close to the border with Austria-Hungary) and to strike the Austrian forces after their tactical plan had been divulged.

53 World War I The Allies had the advantages of greater resources of finance and raw materials. Britain maintained its naval dominance and could draw on its empire for support. In addition, because Germany was effectively blockaded, the United States, even though officially neutral for most of the war, served as a major source of supplies for the Allies. The warring nations went into battle in a confident mood. Each side was sure of its strength and felt it had prepared carefully. Each nation's propaganda machine delivered reassuring messages of guaranteed victory. All expected that the war would soon be over, concluded in a few decisive battles. It was generally believed that the war would be over by Christmas. [See Southeastern The First Two Years Of War  All of the general staffs had been refining their war plans for years. The Germans knew that Allied naval supremacy would cut them off from needed sources abroad. They realized that they were potentially surrounded and that they should strike a quick knockout blow to end the war. Following the plan devised by Chief of the General Staff Alfred von Schlieffen, the Germans aimed to push the Belgians aside and drive rapidly south into France. The plan then called for the German forces to wheel west of Paris, outflank the French forces, and drive them toward Alsace-Lorraine, where they would be met by another German army. Within six weeks, the French would be destroyed, caught between the western hammer and the eastern anvil. Meanwhile, a small German force would be holding the presumably slow-moving Russians on the eastern front, awaiting the arrival via the excellent German rail system of the victorious western forces. The plan nearly worked.  The Germans marched according to the plan until they got so close to Paris that they could see the top of the Eiffel Tower. They were hurled back by a bold French offensive through a gap that opened between their armies in the First Battle of the Marne, fought between September 5 and 12. With the assistance of a small British expeditionary force and Parisian taxi drivers providing transportation, the French then marched north in a race with the Germans to reach and control the vital ports along the English Channel. After much desperate fighting, the enemies established battle positions that stabilized, creating the "western front." This solid line of opposing trenches, which stretched from the Channel to near Nancy, was the scene for a grisly new war of attrition.   By the end of 1914 all sides knew that they were trapped in a new type of war, one of horrible consequences. Single battles claimed hundreds of thousands of lives, and the toll during the first few months of the conflict ran as high as one and one-half million dead and wounded.

54 Battle of 1st Marne The First Battle of the Marne was conducted between 6-12 September 1914, with the outcome bringing to an end the war of movement that had dominated the First World War since the beginning of August.  Instead, with the German advance brought to a halt, stalemate and trench warfare ensued. Having invaded Belgium and north-eastern France, the German army had reached within 30 miles of Paris.  Their progress had been rapid, having successfully beaten back Belgian, French and British forces in advancing deep into north-eastern France.  Their advance was in pursuance of the aims of the Schlieffen Plan, whose primary focus was the swift defeat of France in the west before turning attention the Russian forces in the east. As the German armies neared Paris, the French capital prepared itself for a siege.  The defending French forces (Fifth and Sixth Armies) - and the British - were at the point of exhaustion, having retreated continuously for days under repeated German attack until, directed by Joseph Joffre, the French Commander-in-Chief, they reached the south of the River Marne. With victory seemingly near, Alexander von Kluck's German First Army was instructed to encircle Paris from the east.  The French government, similarly expecting the fall of the capital, left Paris for Bordeaux. Joseph Joffre, imperturbable in the face of crisis, resolved on 4 September to launch a counter-offensive strike, under the recommendation of the military governor of Paris, Gallieni, and aided by the British under Sir John French (the latter only after prompting by the British war minister,Lord Kitchener).  Joffre authorised General Maunoury's Sixth Army - comprising 150,000 men - to attack the right flank of the German First Army in an action beginning on the morning of 6 September.  In turning to meet the French attack a 30 mile wide gap appeared in the German lines between the First and Second Army, the latter commanded by the cautious General Karl von Bulow. The Allies were prompt in exploiting the break in the German lines, despatching troops from the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) to join the French Fifth Army in pouring through the gap between the two German armies, the right wing of Fifth Army simultaneously attacking the German Second Army. Nevertheless, the German forces were close to achieving a breakthrough against Maunoury's beleaguered forces between 6-8 September, and were only saved on 7 September by the aid of 6,000 French reserve infantry troops ferried from Paris in streams of taxi cabs, 600 in all. The following night, on 8 September, the aggressive French commander General Franchet d'Esperey's Fifth Army launched a surprise attack against the German Second Army, serving to further widen the gap between the German First and Second Armies.  D'Espery was a recent appointment, Joffre having given him command of Fifth Army in place of the dismissed General Lanrezac, who was deemed too cautious and wanting in 'offensive spirit'. On 9 September the German armies began a retreat ordered by the German Chief of Staff Helmuth von Moltke.  Moltke feared an Allied breakthrough, plagued by poor communication from his lines at the Marne. The retreating armies were pursued by the French and British, although the pace of the Allied advance was slow - a mere 12 miles in one day.  The German armies ceased their withdrawal after 40 miles at a point north of the River Aisne, where the First and Second Armies dug in, preparing trenches that were to last for several years. In a strategic triumph at the First Battle of the Marne, which ended on 10 September, the French forces - assisted by the British - had succeeded in throwing back the German offensive, recapturing lost ground in the process.  More importantly, the battle ended any hopes the Germans had of effectively bringing the war on the Western Front to an early close. Casualties at the battle were heavy.  The French incurred 250,000 losses, and it is believed that the Germans suffered similar casualties (no official figures are available).  The British recorded 12,733 casualties among the BEF.

55 Joseph Jacques Cesaire Joffre
Joseph Jacques Cesaire Joffre ( ) was born on 12 January 1852 in Rivesaltes in the Eastern Pyrenees. Joffre, known as 'Papa Joffre', first saw service during the siege of Paris during the Franco-Prussian War of , serving afterwards in the French colonies.  He was appointed Chief of the French General Staff in 1911 upon the recommendation of his mentor, Joseph Simon Gallieni. In this capacity Joffre was responsible for the development of the deeply flawed Plan XVII blueprint for the invasion of Germany, which did not take account of the likelihood of a German invasion of France through Belgium.  He also acted to purge the French army of 'defensively-minded' officers prior to the outbreak of war. Responsible for the French war effort, Joffre's remarkable qualities of magisterial calm and an absolute refusal to admit defeat proved vital during the early days of the war, particularly during the First Battle of the Marne, after which he was declared the savior of France, although others since claimed credit for saving France at the Marne, including Gallieni. After two and a half years as Chief of Staff, Joffre was effectively dismissed on 13 December 1916 (although Joffre remained too popular for it to be represented as such) following the initial success of the German offensive at Verdun and other failures.  He was made Marshal of France on the same day. His lack of preparation for Verdun, plus his advocacy of Plan XVII, which resulted in setbacks during the August Battles for the Frontiers, tainted him in the eyes of many, as did French breakthrough setbacks at Champagne and Artois.  He was replaced by Robert Nivelle. Subsequently reduced to a ceremonial role, Joffre served in 1917 as head of the French military mission to the U.S. and as president of the Supreme War Council in 1918, retiring from military and public life thereafter.  In 1919 he was made a member of the French Academy. Joseph Joffre died on January 3, 1931, in Paris.  His memoirs, in two volumes, were published posthumously in 1932. Joseph Joffre

56 Helmuth von Moltke Helmuth von Moltke
Helmuth von Moltke ( ), born in 1848, was the nephew of the renowned Prussian general Moltke the Elder, famous for important military victories against Austria in 1866 and during the Franco-Prussian War of Upon Alfred von Schlieffen's retirement in 1906 Moltke became Army Chief of Staff.  His predecessor had drawn up the famous Schlieffen Plan, to be used during war to quickly defeat France in the west by means of a rapid, overwhelmingly powerful flank attack through Belgium and Holland, whilst a small army kept Russia at bay in the east. Moltke retained Schlieffen's plan but modified it progressively to take account of French military build up in the south immediately prior to the war.  Whilst Moltke is often blamed for the ineffectual implementation of the Schlieffen Plan, he himself persuaded the Kaiser, Wilhelm II, who was doubtful of its merits.  Moltke insisted that once the Schlieffen Plan was set in motion it could not be stopped. Most historians agree that Moltke proved indecisive at the critical moment during the invasion of France.  Fear of Russian attack in the east, as well as the opportunity to capture an unplanned victory against the French in Lorraine, distracted Moltke. Failure to give clear orders during the Battle of the Marne in early September, as his forces neared Paris, resulted in field commanders ordering a retreat.  Stalemate followed with trench warfare. Wilhelm replaced Moltke with Erich Falkenhayn as Chief of Staff on 14 September 1914, effectively retiring Moltke. Helmuth von Moltke died in 1916. Helmuth von Moltke

57 Joseph Simon Gallieni Joseph Simon Gallieni
Joseph Gallieni ( ) was born at Saint-Beat on April 24, 1849.  He trained at the military academy in Saint-Cyr before serving in the Franco-Prussian War of   He was subsequently posted to Africa in the mid-1870s. After serving in Martinique Gallieni was made governor of French Sudan, during which time he successfully quelled rebellion by Sudanese rebels.  From he served in French Indochina before being dispatched to Madagascar, where he again suppressed revolt, this time of monarchist forces.  He served as governor of Madagascar until 1905, building a reputation as a fair, just governor. A widespread choice of supreme commander of the French Army in 1911, Gallieni declined the position in favor of Joseph Joffre, pleading advancing age and ill-health. Retiring from the army in April 1914, Gallieni was recalled in August to assist in the defense of Paris prior to the First Battle of the Marne.  Joffre, wary of Gallieni's influence and reputation, to an extent marginalized Gallieni's role, keeping him at arm's length from headquarters, although it is widely believed that it was Gallieni's energy and foresight which saved Paris. Gallieni saw an attacking opportunity when the German First Army turned east in early September, sending the Sixth Army to strike its flank, and subsequently rushing reserves to the front by taxi in response to German counter-attacks.  Credit for the success of the defense of Paris was however largely assigned to Joffre. He subsequently served as minister of war in October 1915 before retiring, again citing ill-health in March 1916; his relationship with Joffre had proved a quarrelsome one.  The strain of high office having broken his already fragile health, Joseph Gallieni died on 27 May 1916, and was posthumously appointed Marshal in 1921. Joseph Simon Gallieni

58 Joseph Simon Gallieni (Continued)
Gallieni saw an attacking opportunity when the German First Army turned east in early September 1914, sending the Sixth Army to strike its flank, and subsequently rushing reserves to the front by taxi in response to German counter-attacks.  Joseph Simon Gallieni

59 “Race to the Sea” The “Race to the Sea”, as it subsequently - and somewhat inaccurately - became known, and which was conducted from September-November 1914, ended with the onset of trench warfare in the Western Front. In fact the Race to the Sea comprised what was the last mobile phase of the war on the Western Front until the German Spring Offensive of March 1918.  Allied attempts to force an extensive German retreat in the wake of the September battles of the Marne and Aisne ultimately failed as German defenders firmly dug in behind formidably prepared trench lines. In consequence both sides, most notably the Germans, attempted to gain an advantage by pressing their attacks further north in Flanders, the only open flank remaining open for manoeuvre, each constantly striving to outmanoeuvre the other.  However all such attempts - including the first German-led Battle of Ypres - were thwarted as each side consistently dug in and prepared effective trench defences. Once the trench lines had reached the the coast, the Allies defending against fierce German attacks plotted by newly-installed Chief of Staff Erich Falkenhayn much of the way, focus switched to the opposite direction all the way to the (neutral) Swiss border, some 400 miles in length.  During this earlier period control of the Channel coast was deemed a genuine strategic priority, thus in part justifying the tag 'Race to the Sea'; ultimately however both sides found themselves in possession of given Channel ports. Deemed something of a draw by the close of November each side settled down to a protracted bout of trench warfare, punctuated at various points by concerted attempts - largely Allied - to decisively puncture the enemy line (as at the Somme, the Aisne and Passchendaele).

60 “Race to the Sea” (Continued)
After the Battle of the 1st Marne, each side will fight a series of battles in order to try to reach the North Sea first in order to outflank the other. This did not work and will begin “trench warfare” on the western front.

61 Battle of Ypres Strategically located along the roads leading to the Channel ports in Belgian Flanders, the Belgian city of Ypres had been the scene of numerous battles since the sixteenth century.  With the German failure at the Battle of the Marne in September 1914 and the subsequent Allied counter attacks, the "Race to the Sea" began. This so called race ended at the North Sea coast after each army attempted to outflank the other by moving north and west.  This area of Flanders, described by one historian as having the dreariest landscape in Western Europe, contained the last gap through which either side could launch a decisive thrust. By October 1914, the Allies had reached Nieuport on the North Sea coast.  The Germans, as a prelude to General Erich von Falkenhayn's Flanders Offensive, captured Antwerp and forced its Belgian defenders back to Nieuport, near Ypres. Under the command of Field Marshall Sir John French, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) retreated to Ypres after Antwerp fell.  They arrived there between 8 and 19 October to bolster the Belgian and French defence.  The Allied position around Ypres took the shape of a small salient in the trench lines because it could best be defended from the low ridge of higher ground to the east, but it was vulnerable to superior German artillery.  The BEF held a thirty-five mile long line in the centre of the bulge while the French Army in the area, commanded by General Ferdinand Foch, manned the flanks to the south of the city. At the outset of the battle, French and Foch both retained the hope of launching an offensive of their own.  They believed a coordinated attack would enable the Allies to recapture the industrial city of Lille, Belgium, followed swiftly by Brussels.  The new German Army Chief of Staff, Falkenhayn, quickly corrected their optimistic beliefs. Falkenhayn's Flanders Offensive began on 20 October when he ordered an advance to break through the Allied line and capture the ports of Dunkirk, Calais, and Boulogne.  He struck the Belgian defences on the Yser River between Dixmude and Nieuport. The already weakened Belgian Army fought valiantly, but the German actions forced Belgium's King Albert to open the sluices that held back the sea.  On 27 October, the Belgians flooded the land between their positions and the Germans' along the twenty-mile strip of land between Dixmude and Nieuport, creating a two-mile wide water barrier that forced Falkenhayn to halt and reconsider his plans. The second phase of the Flanders Offensive was a series of assaults against the city of Ypres.  To seize it, Falkenhayn had at his disposal the newly assembled Fourth Army (made up of units from the siege of Antwerp and eight new divisions manned by underage recruits) commanded by the Duke of Wurttemberg, a cavalry corps, and Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria's Sixth Army. These forces gave the Germans a considerable numerical advantage over the BEF's seven infantry divisions (one was held in reserve) and three cavalry divisions.  For replacements, General French could only count on a few divisions of Indian troops already en route as reinforcements.  The Indian units would soon prove to be outstanding fighters in both offence and defence. The attacks began along a much narrower front on 31 October when German cavalry drove a smaller British cavalry unit from its position on the Messines Ridge at the southern end of the salient.  Shortly thereafter, German forces engaged General Douglas Haig's First Corps further to the north, but a ferocious British counterattack repelled the Germans.  Thanks to superior British rifle fire, they were able to hold this sector.  The British rifles were so fast and deadly that the Germans mistakenly believed they were facing British machine guns. On 11 November, two premier German divisions attempted to break the British lines just north of the Menin Road in the Nuns' Woods only four miles from Ypres itself.  The Prussian Guards and the 4th Division sought the town of Hooge; the attack lasted all day.  Initially successful in creating a breakthrough, the Germans were slow in exploiting their gains.  German indecisiveness enabled the British to assemble a motley collection of soldiers (cooks, officer's servants, medical orderlies, clerks, and engineers) who stemmed the enemy advance and eventually drove them back to their own lines. Fighting around Ypres would linger on until 22 November when the onset of winter weather forced a break in hostilities.  The combat during this engagement was extremely confusing and unrelenting.  After the fight, British survivors were content to say that they had been at "First Ypres"; no more information was necessary to explain what they endured. One soldier, Private Donald Fraser, explained it this way: "one [a man] was not a soldier unless he had served on the Ypres front." Less than half of the 160,000 men the BEF sent to France came out of the encounter unscathed.  After November 1914, the British would come to call these trenches 'the Salient" and would remain as Ypres' guardians for the rest of the war.

62 Battle of Ypres (Continued)
This battle took place as the “race to the sea” was taking place. This is the battle where the Germans will introduce poison gas.

63 Ferdinand Foch Ferdinand Foch ( ) was born on 2 October 1851 in Tarbes, the son of a civil servant.  He resolved to become a soldier early in life, joining the army in 1871 where he served in the Franco-Prussian war of Having enrolled at the French army college, Ecole de Guerre, Foch proved so impressive that he was asked to remain as a teacher.  His lectures there were published as The Principles of War and De la Conduite de la Guerre.  Foch further served at the Ecole de Guerre from as director. With the onset of war Foch was given command of the Ninth Army during the Battle of the Marne following crucial early successes in Nancy; at the Marne he led the French counter-attack.  He was subsequently promoted and given command of the Northern Army on the Western Front in October 1914.  In this position he saw service during the Somme offensive in 1916 (and for which he was sacrificed as a French scapegoat, banished for a while to the Italian front). With the arrival of the hero of Verdun, General Philippe Petain, replacing Robert Nivelle, Foch was recalled from relative obscurity and made Chief of the General Staff in 1918. Following intense persuasion and negotiation from Georges Clemenceau, the French prime minister, Foch was given overall control of the Allied forces in March 1918, serving as Allied Supreme Commander, in which role he frequently conflicted with Pershing over the disposition of U.S. forces. Foch stopped the advance of the German forces during the great push of Spring 1918 at the Second Battle of Marne in July 1918, mounting the counter-attack that turned the tide of the war.  Foch accepted the German surrender in November 1918.  Earlier this year, in July, Foch was made Marshal of France. Following the conclusion of the war Foch played a major advisory role at the Paris Peace Conference. Ferdinand Foch died in Paris on 20 March 1929.

64 Ferdinand Foch (Continued)
In October 1914 he was given command of the French Northern Army on the Western Front. He will give the order to “dig in.” Allied soldiers will construct trenches that extended over 400 miles.

65 Trenches

66 New Weapons of World War I

67 NEW WEAPONS OF WORLD WAR I
Poison Gas Was referred to as the “deadly greenish-yellow cloud.” Heavy Artillery Howitzers, machine guns, and field guns caused havoc. It changed old battle tactics, it now seemed futile to charge enemy lines and then be wiped out by this artillery.

68 NEW WEAPONS OF WORLD WAR I (continued)
Tank It was invented by a British man named Ernest Duncap Swinton. Airplane First they were used to spy or observe. They eventually became equipped with machine guns, and pilots eventually engage in air-to-air fighting.

69 Battle of Verdun (February 21-December 19, 1916)
Germans will stage a surprise attack against the French. It was located on the Meuse River. When the battle was over, more than 750,000 troops on both sides were killed. When the fighting stopped the front had moved less than 10 miles.

70 Battle of Somme (July-November 1916)
Over 2,000 pieces of artillery fired over 2 million shells. The British introduced the tank at this battle on September 15, The tank was ineffective because tactics had not yet been developed.

71 Ernest Dunlop Swinton British Lt. Colonel who invented the tank.

72 Battle of Somme (July-November 1916) (continued)
The bloodiest day in British history occurred at the Battle of Somme on July 1, 1916. 57,470 causalities 19,240 dead 35,493 wounded 2,152 missing 585 captured

73 Battle of Somme (July-November 1916) (continued)
Total dead for Allied Powers 794,000 Total dead for Central Powers 538,888

74 Battle of Tannenberg (August 1914)
Germans will defeat the Russians. Russia had 30,000 causalities Russia had 92,000 captured Only about 10,000 of about 150,000 Russian troops escaped.

75 Eastern Front By the middle of 1915 Russia had been pushed back and given up land greater than the size of France. The eastern front was more mobile than the western front and Russia was taking a terrible beating. The Allies thought that because Russia was taking a beating that they were going to pull out of the war. The keep Russia in the war the Allies promised that after the war Russia would get Constantinople and control the Dardanelles Straits.

76 Gallipoli Campaign (February 19, 1915-January 9, 1916)
Was launched by Winston Churchill of England who was head of the British navy at this time. It was a mission to take the Dardanelles to supply Russia and Serbia, and if successful it might cause the surrender of the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary.

77 Eastern Front In March 1916, Russia will launch an offensive against Germany and Austria-Hungary, but the Russians lost over 1,000,000 men in the process. This Russian offensive would help the western front because Germany would have to transfer troops to the east.

78 Naval War At the beginning of the war, Great Britain put a naval blockade around Germany to stop them form obtaining supplies. Germany will respond with a submarine blockade around Great Britain.

79 U-Boat German submarine.
They would eventually deny international law by attacking both military and commercial ships in the war zone.

80 Lusitania A British transatlantic steamer that was sunk off the southwestern Irish coast about 15 miles off shore by the German u-boat U-20 on May 7, 1915. 1,959 total crew and passengers. 1,198 died, including 124 Americans.

81 Lusitania (Continued)
It’s sinking brought protest from all over the world. Germany claimed that it was armed and carried Canadian troops. In actuality, it was not armed and carried no troops, but its cargo did include 4,200 cases of cartridges and 1,250 cases of empty steel shrapnel shells.

82 British steamer that was sunk on August 19, 1915, by German u-boat.
Arabic British steamer that was sunk on August 19, 1915, by German u-boat. 40 passengers were killed, including 2 Americans.

83 Arabic (Continued) In August 1915, the British passenger liner Arabic was torpedoed by a German U-boat off the coast of Ireland. Approximately 40 passengers and crew were lost, including two Americans. This event followed hard on the heels of the sinking of the Lusitania (May 7) and reignited public rage at Germany. President Wilson protested this violation of the United States' neutral rights and threatened to break diplomatic relations. German ambassador Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff responded with what has been termed the "Arabic Pledge," in which his government promised to: Halt the practice of attacking unarmed passenger ships without warning Provide for the safety of crew and passengers of any passenger vessels under attack This German concession was prompted less by humanitarian concerns than by the realities of war. In the summer of 1915, Germany still lacked sufficient U-boats to conduct all-out warfare on the seas. Until the submarine fleet had been brought to full strength, the Germans did not wish to provoke the United States into entering the war. A period of relative calm on the high seas followed, but was interrupted by the sinking of the Sussex in March 1916.

84 “Arabic Pledge” Made on September 1, 1915, by the German Ambassador Johann von Bernstorff. He pledged on his own authority “liners will not be sunk by our submarines without warning…provided that the liners do not try to escape or offer resistance.” Johann von Bernstorff

85 Sussex An unarmed French vessel, that was a cross channel ferry that was mistaken for a minelayer, was sunk by German u-boat UB-29 in the English Channel on March 24, 1916.

86 Sussex (Continued) Germany sparked an international diplomatic crisis when, on 24 March 1916, one of its submarines - UB-29, mistakenly sank a French cross-channel ferry - the Sussex of 1,350 tons - believing it instead to be a minelayer. The ensuing crisis stemmed from the 25 American civilian casualties (out of a total of 80 casualties, including 50 fatalities) who were on board the Sussex.  The torpedoed ferry nevertheless managed to limp onwards, towed to the French port of Boulogne. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson consequently addressed Congress on 19 April 1916, vehemently condemning the German action.  During the course of his speech he demanded "that unless the Imperial German Government should now immediately declare and effect an abandonment of its present method of warfare against passenger and freight carrying vessels this Government can have no choice but to sever diplomatic relations with the Government of the German Empire altogether". German reaction - and alarm - in the wake of Wilson's speech was swift.  Five days later, on 24 April 1916, Germany abandoned its U-boat campaign directed around Britain and the Mediterranean.  Henceforth passenger ships were to be left unmolested and merchantman searched before being sunk.

87 Sussex Pledge Delivered on May 4, 1916, from Germany to U.S.
Germany promised that unresisting belligerent merchant and passenger vessels would not be attacked without warning and without provisions for the safety of those aboard. Also if the U.S. government failed to secure Allied observance of “freedom of the seas” for neutrals to trade with either side in the war, Germany reserved the right to alter its policy.

88 Convoy System Grouping of ships to sail together under naval escort in wartime. In World War I navy escort vessels were at first used only to accompany troopships, but the convoy system was adopted for merchant shipping when the unrestricted German submarine campaign began in 1917. Developed by U.S. Admiral William Sims.

89 U.S. Neutrality in World War I
When the war began in 1914, President Woodrow Wilson had declared neutrality and that policy was followed up until 1917.

90 3 REASONS U.S. ENTERED WORLD WAR I
Germans resume unrestricted submarine warfare. Zimmerman Telegram Revolution in Russia

91 German Submarine Decree
Effective February 1, 1917, German u-boats would sink all ships in a broad war zone without warning. Only neutral ships already at sea would be safe during a short period of grace. One U.S. passenger ship would be allowed to sail weekly between New York City and Falmouth, England, provided the vessels were properly marked and carried no contraband.

92 German Submarine Decree
Washington D.C., 31 January 1917 Mr. Secretary of State: Your Excellency was good enough to transmit to the Imperial Government a copy of the message which the President of the United States of America addressed to the Senate on the 22nd inst.  The Imperial Government has given it the earnest consideration which the President's statements deserve, inspired, as they are, by a deep sentiment of responsibility The German people also repudiate all alliances which serve to force the countries into a competition for might and to involve them in a net of selfish intrigues.  On the other hand, Germany will gladly cooperate in all efforts to prevent future wars. The freedom of the seas, being a preliminary condition of the free existence of nations and the peaceful intercourse between them, as well as the open door for the commerce of all nations, has always formed part of the leading principles of Germany's political program.  All the more the Imperial Government regrets that the attitude of her enemies, who are so entirely opposed to peace, makes it impossible for the world at present to bring about the realization of these lofty ideals. Germany and her allies were ready to enter now into a discussion of peace, and had set down as basis the guarantee of existence, honour, and free development of their peoples.  Their aims, as has been expressly stated in the note of December 12, 1916, were not directed toward the destruction or annihilation of their enemies and were, according to their conviction, perfectly compatible with the rights of the other nations The attempt of the four allied powers to bring about peace has failed, owing to the lust of conquest of their enemies, who desired to dictate the conditions of peace.  Under the pretence of following the principle of nationality, our enemies have disclosed their real aims in this way, viz., to dismember and dishonour Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria.  To the wish of reconciliation they oppose the will of destruction.  They desire a fight to the bitter end. A new situation has thus been created which forces Germany to new decisions.  Since two years and a half England is using her naval power for a criminal attempt to force Germany into submission by starvation.  In brutal contempt of international law, the group of powers led by England not only curtail the legitimate trade of their opponents, but they also, by ruthless pressure, compel neutral countries either to altogether forego every trade not agreeable to the Entente Powers, or to limit it according to their arbitrary decrees. The American Government knows the steps which have been taken to cause England and her allies to return to the rules of international law and to respect the freedom of the seas.  The English Government, however, insists upon continuing its war of starvation, which does not at all affect the military power of its opponents, but compels women and children, the sick and the aged, to suffer for their country pains and privations which endanger the vitality of the nation The Imperial Government could not justify before its own conscience, before the German people, and before history the neglect of any means destined to bring about the end of the war.  Like the President of the United States, the Imperial Government had hoped to reach this goal by negotiations Sincerely trusting that the people and the Government of the United States will understand the motives for this decision and its necessity, the Imperial Government hopes that the United States may view the new situation from the lofty heights of impartiality, and assist, on their part, to prevent further misery and unavoidable sacrifice of human life. Inclosing two memoranda regarding the details of the contemplated military measures at sea, I remain, etc. Memoranda Enclosed with Count Bernstorff's Note From February 1, 1917, sea traffic will be stopped with every available weapon and without further notice in the following blockade zones around Great Britain, France, Italy and in the Eastern Mediterranean: . . . Neutral ships navigating these blockade zones do so at their own risk.  Although care has been taken that neutral ships which are on their way toward ports of the blockade zones on February 1, 1917, and have come in the vicinity of the latter, will be spared during a sufficiently long period, it is strongly advised to warn them with all available means in order to cause their return. Neutral ships which on February 1st are in ports of the blockade zones can with the same safety leave them. The instructions given to the commanders of German submarines provide for a sufficiently long period during which the safety of passengers on unarmed enemy passenger ships is guaranteed. Americans en route to the blockade zone on enemy freight steamers are not endangered, as the enemy shipping firms can prevent such ships in time from entering the zone. Sailing of regular American passenger steamers may continue undisturbed after February 1, 1917, if: (A) The port of destination is Falmouth. (B) Sailing to or coming from that port course is taken via the Scilly Islands and a point 50 degrees north, 20 degrees west. (C) The steamers are marked in the following way, which must not be allowed to other vessels in American ports: On ship's hull and superstructure three vertical stripes one metre wide, each to be painted alternately white and red.  Each mast should show a large flag checkered white and red, and the stern the American national flag.  Care should be taken that, during dark, national flag and painted marks are easily recognizable from a distance, and that the boats are well lighted throughout. (D) One steamer a week sails in each direction with arrival at Falmouth on Sunday and departure from Falmouth on Wednesday. (E) United States Government guarantees that no contraband (according to German contraband list) is carried by those steamers.

93 U.S. Reaction to German Submarine Decree
On February 3, 1917, President Woodrow Wilson severed diplomatic relations with Germany. Wilson stated “We do not desire any hostile conflict with the Imperial German government…we shall not believe that they are hostile to us unless and until we are obliged to believe it; and we propose nothing more than the reasonable defense of undoubted rights of our people.”

94 Laconia British liner which was torpedoed by a German u-boat without warning off the Irish coast on February 25, 1917. Two Americans were among those killed. President Woodrow Wilson called the sinking an “overt act.”

95 Zimmerman Telegram It was from the German Foreign Secretary Arthur von Zimmerman to the German Ambassador to the United States in Washington D.C. Johann von Bernstorff.

96 Decoded Zimmerman Telegram
“We intend to begin unrestricted submarine warfare. We shall endeavor to keep the United States neutral. In the event of this not succeeding we make Mexico a proposal of alliance on the following basis: make war together, make peace together, generous financial support, and an understanding on our part that Mexico is to recover the lost territory in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.”

97 Zimmerman Telegram (Continued)
On February 25, 1917, President Wilson received the text of the Zimmerman Telegram (from British intelligence through the U.S. State Department). On February 28, 1917, publication was authorized to Edward M. Hood of the Associated Press and the story was published on March 1, 1917. Zimmerman admitted its authenticity on March 3, 1917.

98 April 6, 1917 President Woodrow Wilson signed a joint declaration of war resolution. It passed the Senate 82-6. It passed the House President Wilson urged the American people “…to make the world safe for democracy.”

99 CHANGE IN RUSSIA World War I was becoming more and more unpopular with the Russian people. The Tsar and his reign was becoming more and more unpopular.

100 Nicholas II He was the last Tsar of Russia and his rule was very oppressive. He was incompetent in handling the war and the government. He was at the front commanding Russian troops and left the running of the Russian government to his wife Alexandra.

101 Alexandra Wife of Tsar Nicholas II who handled Russian government affairs. She and Tsar Nicholas II had a son named Alexis who had an incurable blood disease called hemophilia.

102 Grigori Rasputin He was a mad monk who gave advise to Alexandra in running the country. Nicholas II and Alexandra also believed he had the power to cure Alexis. In December 1916, two relatives of Nicholas II decided that Rasputin must be eliminated.

103 Grigori Rasputin (Continued)
On December 29, 1916, Rasputin dined with them, then was poisoned and shot, but did not die. They finally threw him off a bridge in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) into the Neva River.

104 On March 8, 1917, hundreds of thousands of Russian people hit the streets of Petrograd protesting food shortages. When troops were ordered to put down the riots on March 11 & 12, many of them joined the protestors. On March 15, 1917, Tsar Nicholas II will abdicate or step down bringing the Romanov dynasty ot an end. It was a spontaneous revolt, relatively bloodless, and without the help of revolutionary intellectuals.

105 Alexander Kerensky He will be the leader of a provisional government that is established in Russia. He was a leader of the Mensheviks. His government continued with the war (World War I) and lost popular support with the Russian people.

106 November Revolt (November 1917)
The radical Bolsheviks were opposed to the new Kerensky government. The Bolsheviks staged a coup d’ etat (revolution) in Petrograd.

107 Aurora A ship in which the Bolsheviks turned its guns and aimed them at the government buildings including the governmental palace.

108 Vladimir Ilyich Lenin Born in 1870 to a middle class family.
His brother Alexander was hung for trying to assassinate Tsar Alexander III (father of Nicholas II). This had a profound affect on Lenin. He will be exiled to Siberia and will eventually leave and go to Europe.

109 Vladimir Lenin (continued)
One of Lenin’s first objectives once in power was to get out of the war (World War I).

110 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918)
Peace treaty that was negotiated between Russia and the Central Powers. It will withdraw Russia from World War I.

111 GROUPS WHO OPPOSED THE BOLSHEVIKS IN RUSSIA
Royalist Group who wanted the Tsar back in power. Liberals Middle class people who wanted a capitalist democracy. Moderates Socialists who wanted a social democracy.

112 As a result Civil War broke out in early 1918 in Russia.

113 2 GROUPS OF RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR
Whites Groups opposed to the Bolsheviks. Reds Bolsheviks who supported the teachings of Karl Marx and Communism.

114 Russian Revolution The Allied Powers will send supplies to help the whites, but the big problem is that the whites didn’t have any unity. For 3 years war between the whites and the reds took place. During this period Lenin will kill Tsar Nicholas II and his family.

115 Leon Trotsky Leader of the Red Army

116 Cheka Russian secret police set up by Vladimir Lenin.
The Cheka would arrest anyone who opposed Lenin and they put restrictions on the Russian Orthodox Church.

117 Russian Revolution By 1921 the Reds had won and Lenin will extend Communism all over Russia.

118 Ferdinand Foch French General who was appointed Supreme Allied Commander after the United States enters World War I in 1917. Ferdinand Foch

119 Battle of 2nd Marne (July 18-August 6, 1918)
Considered to be the turning point of World War I. Here the German offensive that had been mounted in the Spring of 1918 would be stopped 37 miles outside of Paris.

120 Meuse-Argonne Offensive (Sept. 26-Nov. 11, 1918)
The Allied counter-offensive that will cut the main supply route of the German army which was the Sedan-Mezieres Railroad. The Allies will push the Germans back to the German border.

121 T.E. Lawrence (“Lawrence of Arabia”)
A British officer who organized Arab freedom-fighters in the Middle East and forced the Ottoman Empire to surrender in October of 1918.

122 Kaiser William II of Germany will abdicate.
November 9, 1918 Kaiser William II of Germany will abdicate.

123 Germany will sign an armistice.
November 11, 1918 Germany will sign an armistice.

124 After the Armistice After the armistice was signed, delegates from the Allied powers will meet in Paris to develop treaties. They would draft 5 different treaties based on Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points.

125 “Big Four” Woodrow Wilson—United States
David Lloyd George—Great Britain George Clemenceau--France Vittorio Orlando--Italy

126 “Big Four”

127 Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points
Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind, but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined. The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freest co-operation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent determination of her own political development and national policy and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their goodwill, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and determined for the government of their relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole structure and validity of international law is forever impaired.

128 Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points (Continued)
All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest of all. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity of autonomous development. Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality; and international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan states should be entered into. The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman [Turkish] Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule [i.e., Kurds, Arab peoples, Armenians and some Greeks] should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles [namely, the straits leading from the Black Sea approaches to international waters] should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international guarantees. An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international covenant. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.

129 Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919)
Germany has to cede Alsace-Lorraine to France. Germany has to cede the coal mines in the Saar-area to France. Germany has to cede an area with Moresnet, Eupen, Malmédy and St. Vith to Belgium. Germany has to cede the main part of West-Prussia and almost the whole province of Posen to the new state of Poland. Germany has to cede all colonies: Togo en Cameroun, the territories in East- and South-West Africa, islands in the Pacific and possessions in China. All German properties in foreign countries are confiscated. Germany has to cede al war material to the allies. German compulsory military service is abolished, as well as the General Staff. Germany is not allowed to have tanks, airplanes, submarines, large warships and poison gas. During 15 years Germany is not allowed to station troops on the left border of the river Rhine and in a 50 km strip on the right border of the Rhine. The total size of the Germany army is not to exceed men. The German navy has a maximum of men. Germany is allowed a total of officers. Germany is not to take part in the League of Nations. Austria has to cede South-Tirol to Italy. Turkey has to cede all foreign possessions. England gets Iraq, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, France gets Syria and Lebanon. Germany has to cede to the allies all seagoing ships with a carrying capacity exceeding 1600 Brt, plus half of all ships between 1000 and 1600 Brt. Furthermore one fourth of the fishing fleet and two fifths of the inland navigation fleet has to be ceded. Germany has to cede large amounts of machinery and building materials, trains and trucks. Germany has to deliver certain amounts of coal, chemicals, dye and fuel for many years. All German sub ocean telegraph cables are confiscated. Germany has to pay 20 billion goldmarks.

130 CITATIONS FOR PRESENTATION
Dowling, Mike, "A Powder Keg in Europe," available from Internet; updated Sunday, January 22, ©2009, Mike Dowling. All rights reserved.  You are welcome to quote from, link to, or make other scholarly, non-profit use of these World War I webpages, but it would be proper to acknowledge and cite your source. The files found at  including all aliases and subfiles, are copyrighted in their form and organization. This World War I Primary Document Archive is affiliated with the Great War Primary Document Archive, Inc. (GWPDA), relying on GWPDA for the hosting of categories VI and VII, and on the WWW Virtual Library for category VIII. However, the remaining files comprising this archive on the BYU Server are under the aegis of Brigham Young University and Richard Hacken. While the managers of this site exercise all possible caution, neither they nor Brigham Young University are to be held responsible for the accuracy, completeness, reliability, or copyright status of any materials made publicly accessible here. "Count Leopold von Berchtold." World War I. Philadelphia Website Design, n.d. Web. 1 Nov < Duffy, Michael. "Feature Article-The Causes of World War I." firstworldwar.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Nov < Shackelford, Michael. "Princip-World War I Document."World War I Biographical Dictionary. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Nov < Wheeler, Heather. "World War One-Causes of World War One Crossword." Historyonthenet.com. Historyonthenet.com, n.d. Web. 1 Nov <


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