1. Ap psychology: Unit xii
Social Psychology
Ap psychology: Unit xii
LAST UNIT!
The scientific study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another…

2. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
Compared to people in Western countries, those in East Asia are more sensitive to situational influences on behavior
True
In order to change people’s racist behaviors, we first need to change their racist attitudes
False
Chimps are more likely to yawn after observing another chimp yawn

3. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
Most people refuse to obey an authority figure who has told them to hurt an innocent person
False
Studies of college & professional athletic events indicate that home teams win about 60% of the time
True

4. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
Individuals pull harder in a team tug-of-war than when they pull in a one-on-one tug-of-war
False
The higher the morale & harmony of a social group, the more likely its members are to make a good decision

5. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
From research on liking & loving, it is clear that opposites do attract
False
We are less likely to offer help to a stranger if other bystanders are present
True

6. Social Psychology: Social Thinking
Part one

7. Social Psychology: Social Thinking, Attribution
Explaining Behavior

8. Social Thinking: Attribution
Attribution Theory (Fritz Heider)
The theory that suggests the way in which we explain the behavior of others…
We credit that behavior either to the SITUATION (external attribution) or to the person’s DISPOSITION (internal attribution)
Example
Was my friend a jerk because he had a bad day or is he simply a bad person?

9. Social Thinking: Attribution
The Scenario
You are a teacher. Clive, your student, is always hostile towards you. He tells you that your class is a waste of time, that you’re his least favorite teacher and that he already knows more than you could possibly teach him.
Using attribution theory, how might you explain Clive’s behavior?

10. Social Thinking: Attribution
Situational Factors (External Attribution)
Clive’s parents are getting divorced & he’s lashing out
Clive has a bad memory of a teacher picking on him & now he dislikes all teachers
Clive has your class right before lunch & his hunger makes him wish class was over
Dispositional Factors (Internal Attribution)
Clive has an aggressive personality; he’s lazy; he’s disrespectful…

11. Social Thinking: Attribution

12. Social Thinking: Attribution
Fundamental Attribution Error (David Napolitan & George Goethals)
The tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
Example
How do students typically view a teacher’s cranky behavior?
Most probably attribute it to their personality, as opposed to their profession…
Actor-Observer Bias…

13. Social Thinking: Attribution
Your teacher was mean; in that class it was okay…
You believe that cheating is bad/wrong...
But you cheat on your math test…

14. Social Thinking: Attribution
What is the function of the fundamental attribution error?
To protect our self-esteem
If we do something wrong, it makes us feel better to blame outside factors, as opposed to blaming ourselves

15. Social Thinking: Attribution
Defensive Attribution
The tendency to blame victims for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way
Also know as “Just-World Bias”
“What terrible criminals these prisoners must have been to receive such treatment…”

16. Social Thinking: Attribution
Culture & Attributional Tendencies
Individualistic Cultures
United States (1), Australia (2), Great Britain (3)
Intermediate Cultures
Israel (19), Spain (20), India (21)
Collectivist Cultures
Hong Kong (37), China (38), Singapore (39)
Who commits the fundamental attribution error more often?
WHY?

17. Social Psychology: Social Thinking, Attitudes
Making Social Judgments

18. Social Thinking: Attitudes
Positive or negative evaluations regarding objects of thought
Social issues
Capital punishment, guns…
Groups
Farmers, liberals...
Institutions
Catholic Church, Supreme Court…
Do attitudes always predict behavior?

19. Social Thinking: Attitudes
Components of Attitude
Attitudes may include up to 3 different components
Cognitive Component
Beliefs about the object of an attitude
Affective Component
Emotional feelings stimulated by an object of thought
Behavioral Component
Predispositions to act in certain ways toward an attitude object

20. Social Thinking: Attitudes
Dimensions of Attitude
Attitudes may vary along several crucial dimensions
Strength
How firmly held? Durable over time? Impact on behavior?
Accessibility
How often & how quickly does it come to mind?
Ambivalence
Conflicted evaluations that include both positive and negative feelings
The higher the level of ambivalence the less predictive of behavior

21. Social Thinking: Attitudes
Explicit Attitudes
Attitudes that we hold consciously and can readily describe
Implicit Attitudes
Covert attitudes that are expressed in subtle, automatic responses; we generally have little conscious control over these
Best example in modern culture?
Implicit Association Test (IAT)

22. Social Thinking: Attitudes
Methods of Attitude Persuasion
Central Route Persuasion
Occurs when interested/analytical people focus on the arguments & respond with favorable thoughts
Example: Followers of world
religions
Peripheral Route Persuasion
Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness or endorsements by respected people
Example: Kennedy v. Nixon (1960)

23. Social Thinking: Attitudes
#1) Source (WHO)
#2) Message (WHAT)
Credibility
Expertise
Trustworthiness
Likability
Attractiveness
Similarity
Fear appeal v. logic
One-sided v. two-sided argument
Number of strong or weak arguments
repetition
#3) Channel (WHAT MEANS)
#4) Receiver (TO WHOM)
In person
On TV or radio
Via audiotape
Via internet
Via telephone
Personality
Expectations
Initial attitude on issue
Strength or preexisting attitude
Factors in Attitude Persuasion

24. Social Thinking: Attitudes
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
The theory that we act to reduce the dissonance we feel when two of our thoughts or attitudes are inconsistent
Example
A person who smokes, yet knows the health risks will either…
Stop smoking
Rationalize that nothing bad will happen to them

26. Social Psychology: Social Influence
Part two

27. Social Psychology: Social Influence, Conformity
Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard; yielding to real or imagined social pressure

28. Social Influence: Conformity
Influential Studies
Asch’s Conformity Study (Solomon Asch, 1955)
50 subjects; young, undergraduate men
Found that participants conformed on 37% of the trials
Of the 50 participants…
13 never caved
14 conformed on more than half of the trials

29. Social Influence: Conformity
Conditions that Strengthen Conformity
Feelings of incompetence or insecurity
Group size; at least 3 people
Group is unanimous
Admiration of the group’s status/attractiveness
No prior commitment to any other response
Strong cultural “respect” for social standards

30. Social Influence: Conformity
Reasons for Conforming
Normative Social Influence
Conformity to social norms for fear of negative social consequences
Informational Social Influence
Conformity to social norms when one looks to others for guidance about how to behave in ambiguous situations

31. Normative
Social Influence or
Informational
Social Influence?

32. Social Psychology: Social Influence, Compliance
A change in behavior prompted by a direct request, as opposed to social norm pressure

33. Social Influence: Compliance
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon
The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a large request
Considerations
The original small agreement creates a bond between the requestor and the requestee
Pro-social requests are especially effective with this technique

34. Social Influence: Compliance
Door-in-the-Face Phenomenon
The tendency for people who have first disagreed to a large request, to accept a more reasonable request
Considerations
The requestee feels guilty for turning down the first request; fears rejection if they continue to decline
The second request looks good compared to the first

35. Social Influence: Compliance
Low-Ball Technique
The tendency for people to accept an unattractive detail if it is introduced after the deal is made, but not the other way around
Considerations
People will behave consistently to their beliefs in order to sustain their commitment
Many may believe that they can’t back out after the initial agreement

36. Social Influence: Compliance
Ingratiation
Involves getting someone to like you in order to obtain compliance with a request
Considerations
Flattery: Focus on positive elements in order to let the “target” know that you think highly of them
Opinion Conformity: Agree with the beliefs & values of the “target;” allow them to “convince” you of their opinion
Self-Presentation: Present yourself in a manner that the “target” would like

37. Social Psychology: Social Influence, Obedience
A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

38. Social Influence: Obedience
Influential Studies
The Milgram Experiment (Stanley Milgram, 1974)
“I was only following orders…” –Adolf Eichmann
Administration of electrical shocks (varying levels)
Findings?
Gender differences?

39. “The most fundamental lesson of our study is that ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process…” – Stanley Milgram

40. Social Influence: Which One?
Influential Studies
Stanford-Prison Experiment (Philip Zimbardo, 1972)
Demonstrated the power of “roles,” as well as deindividualization
Abu Ghraib Prison (Iraq, 2004)
The power of social roles and the situation
Conformity? Compliance? Obedience?

41. Social Psychology: Social Influence, Groups
Consists of two or more individuals who interact and are interdependent…

42. Social Influence: Group Influence
Group Influence on Performance
Social Facilitation (Do GOOD, Do BETTER)
An individual’s performance gets better in the presence of others
Pool players who made 71% of their shots when alone, made 80% when they had spectators

43. Social Influence: Group Influence
Group Influence on Performance
Social Inhibition/Impairment (Do BAD, Do WORSE)
An individual’s performance gets worse in the presence of others
Poor players who made 36% of their shots when alone, made only 25% of their shots when they had spectators

44. Social Influence: Group Influence
Group Influence on Productivity
Reasons for reduced individual productivity in groups?
Reduced efficiency resulting from the loss of coordination
A general reduction in effort, known as social loafing…

45. Social Influence: Group Influence
Group Influence on Productivity
Social Loafing
A reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups as compared to when they work by themselves
Tug-of-War
Group projects

46. Social Influence: Group Influence
Group Influence on Decision-Making
Group Polarization
The enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussions within the group; may produce a shift towards a more extreme decision
Typically considered a “normal” group process

47. Social Influence: Group Influence
Group Influence on Decision-Making
Groupthink
When members of a cohesive group emphasize concurrence at the expense of critical thinking in arriving at a decision
Typically considered a “diseased” group process
Bay of Pigs Invasion
Challenger Explosion

48. Social Influence: Group Influence
Group Influence on Helping Behaviors
Bystander Effect
A paradoxical social phenomenon in which people are less likely to provide needed assistance when they are in groups, as opposed to when they are alone
Summarizing many different studies, psychologists estimate that…
People who are by themselves provide help 75% of the time
People who are surrounded by others help 53% of the time
WHY?
What does inaction by other people suggest?
Diffusion of responsibility

49. Social Psychology: Social Relations
Part three

50. Social Psychology: Social Relations, Prejudice

51. Social Relations: Prejudice
An unjustifiable and negative attitude toward a group; based on stereotypes
Generally involves beliefs, emotions & behavioral dispositions
Explicit Prejudice v. Implicit Prejudice
Discrimination
Unjustifiable & negative behavior toward the members of a group
Do prejudice and discrimination always go hand-in-hand?

52. Social Relations: Prejudice
Examples
In one study, most white participants perceived a white man shoving a black man as “horsing around;” however, when they saw a black man shoving a white man, they interpreted it as “violence”
A black New Jersey dentist who drove a gold BMW was stopped more than 75 times within a year
People tend to perceive fathers as being more intelligent than mothers
Female circumcision in some African countries

53. Social Relations: Prejudice
Examples
In Los Angeles, landlords received identically worded s from a would-be tenant (actually a researcher) expressing interest in vacant apartments advertised online
Encouraging replies came back to:
56% of s signed “Tyrell Jackson”
66% signed “Said Al-Rahman”
89% of those signed “Patrick McDougall”

54. Social Relations: Prejudice
Roots of Prejudice
In-Group
People with whom one shares a common identity; “us”
In-group bias
The tendency to favor one’s own group
Out-Group
Perceived as different or apart from one’s in-group; “them”
Significance?
Once an in-group is established, prejudice and discriminatory treatment of the out-group soon follows…

55. Social Relations: Prejudice
Realistic Conflict Theory
Prejudice & discrimination will be increased between groups that are in conflict over a limited resource
Examples
Early Crusaders & Muslims
Native population of you-name-the-country & the colonists who wanted the land
Scapegoating
When does this phenomenon become most prevalent?
Why/how is it used?

56. Social Relations: Prejudice
How do people learn prejudice?
Social Identity Theory
Formation of a person's identity within a particular group is explained by social categorization, social identity & social comparison
Helps to explain why people feel the need to categorize or stereotype others, producing the in-group sense of “us versus them” that people adopt toward out-groups
Stereotype Vulnerability
The effect that people’s awareness of the stereotypes associated with their social group has on their behavior
Self-fulfilling prophecy

57. Social Psychology: Social Relations, Attraction
“I just don’t know what she sees in him. She do so much better for herself. I suppose he’s a nice guy, but they’re just not right for each other…”

58. Social Relations: Attraction
The Rules of Attraction (Key Factors)
Physical Attractiveness
Research indicates that attractive people of both sexes enjoy greater mating success
We also consider our OWN LEVEL of attractiveness when pursuing partners
The “Matching” Hypothesis

59. Social Relations: Attraction
Did You Know?
Physical attractiveness is the #1 most desirable trait (though it has been found that women lie about this)
Babies gaze longer at attractive faces…
Americans spend more money on beauty supplies than education, but women are unhappier with their appearance today than ever before…

60. Social Relations: Attraction
The Rules of Attraction (Key Factors)
Proximity/Physical Closeness
Availability depends heavily on proximity
Mere Exposure Effect
The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases our liking of them
“He grew on me…”
(Applies to our perception of our self as well)

61. Social Relations: Attraction
The Rules of Attraction (Key Factors)
Similarity Effects
Birds of a feather flock together…
Age, race, religion, social class, education, intelligence, physical attractiveness, values and attitudes…
Serves to validate us…
Similarity causes attraction; however, attraction can also foster similarity…
Reciprocity of Liking
The tendency of people to like people who like them

62. Social Relations: Attraction
Components of Love (Robert Sternberg, 1997)
Intimacy
Feelings of closeness; emotional ties
Passion
The physical aspect of love; characterized by large swings in positive & negative emotions
Commitment
The decisions that one makes regarding a relationship
May coexist, but don’t necessarily go hand-in-hand…

63. Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love

64. Social Relations: Attraction
Love as Attachment (Cindy Hazan & Philip Shaver, 1987)
Studied similarities between love & attachment relationships in infancy and in adulthood
The vast majority of people relive their early bonding experiences (with their parents) in their adult relationships

65. Social Relations: Attraction
Secure Attachment (56% of adult subjects)
I find it relatively easy to get close to others…
I am comfortable depending on others and having them depend on me…
I don’t often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to me…

66. Social Relations: Attraction
Avoidant Attachment (24% of adult subjects)
I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others…
I find it difficult to trust them & difficult to allow myself to depend on them…
I am nervous when anyone gets too close…
I often feel that partners want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being…

67. Social Relations: Attraction
Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment (20% of adult subject)
I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like…
I often worry that my partner doesn’t really love me or won’t want to stay with me…
I want to merge completely with another person, and this desire sometimes scares people away…