1. Haskala & Eastern Jewry in the 18th and 19th C.

2. Haskala - Enlightment The last quarter of the 18th up to the 1880´s Sceptical about hassidic mysticism and dismissal of the belief in messianic liberation Aim: integration of the Jews Maskilim Raising nationalism – every nation has a right on fatherland Feudal system in Europe collapses – Napoleon – Poles saw him as a potential liberator Ended following the pogroms in 1881-2 when it became evident that enlightment alone was unable to provide the desired emancipation : new movements emereged from its ruins: Hibbath Zion, Zionism, Jewish socialist movement.

3. Moses Mendelsohn Berlin, son of a poor scribe Philosophical treatises : "the world results from a creative act through which the divine will seeks to realize the highest good." After 1750 won a Berlin Academy Prize for an essay on the application of mathematical proofs to methaphysics (Kant among the competitors – became friends) After 1760 granted a priviledge of Protected Jew by the king Challenged by a theology student to publicly defend his Judaism or to convert to Christianity  Mendelsohn proclaimed his Jewishness

4. Moses Mendelsohn Next year translated Tanakh into German with a Hebrew commentary: Bi´ur, 1783 Jerusalem: the state has no right to interfere with the religion of its citizens Plurality of truths – various nations need different constitutions – so individuals may need different religions – Lessing, Nathan the Wise (= Mendelsohn) – spokesman for love and humanity; classic on religious tolerance

5. Mendelsohn accepted the existence of miracles and revelation as long as belief in God did not depend on them revelation can not contradict reason reason can discover the reality of God, divine providence and immortality of the soul The first to speak out against the use of excommunication as a religious threat. Wanted to take the Jews out of a ghetto lifestyle and into secular society. Systematic demonstration of the compatibility of traditional Judaism with the precepts of the Enlightment Moses

6. Haskala Importance of education – New Jewish schools (text on traditional rural cheder by Shalom Aleichem, Shtetl, p.98) – The study of non-religious disciplines should be a part of the education of Jewish children – Jews should have perfect knowledge of the language of the country (somewhere led to disappearance of yiddish) – The study of hebrew should be encouraged – rebirth of national consciousness New rationalistic interpretation of traditional religious values  often conflicts with ortodox Jews – Traditional pilpul  succesful lawyers – Secular learning (cities, universities – law, medicine) sharply refused in the rural traditionalist shtetleks Reform of Judaism

7. Eastern Jewry in the 18th and 19th C. Partitions of Poland 1772-1794 : lasted untill 1918 – 900 000 Jews in Poland – 10% of the total population (a relatively large number due to early marriage and lower infant mortality) – Prussia, Russia, Austria – Jews became subject to the laws of three different powers – more complex and unhappy phase – In Prussia and Austria Jews recquired to accept Germanic surnames

8. 1772- 1794

9. Eastern Jewry in the 18th and 19th C. – Austria: Galicia, Cracow – Russia: Lithuania, Belarussia, Ukraine - 60% of the Polish territory and 45% of its population; 700 000 Jews – Prussia – the lowest number of Jews, the poorest Jews expelled from the country („protected“ x „tolerated“ Jews – untill 1848) – Tension between hassidim, mitnagdim and maskilim

10. Pale of Settlement Catherine the Great, Russia – Influenced by antisemitism of the philosophers of enlightment – Ortodox church – deeply antisemitic – Her predecessor expelled Jews from Russia – New Russia = provinces N from the Black Sea  authorised Jews to settle there 1782- Jews shall live in the cities  protests of Russian merchants against the mass arrival of Jews in the cities (merchant´s class) – Catherine granted Jews priviledges and treated them as potentionally useful citizens - made efforts to treat them as a religious minority but at the end failed due to the opposition of Poles and Russian merchants – Merchants (middle class) had not right to move from one city to another- same for Jews

12. Pale of Settlement 1791 – Pale of Settlement – Severe restrictions of Jewish rights of residence and movement – Jews can´t settle in central Russia, they have to live in Poland and in the annexed territories (Lithuania, Belorussia, Ukraine...) – 700 000 Jews since 1795 – Jews had to pay a double tax, later could settle in villages as the only merchants and had a very profitable lease to sell alcohol – Could move to Moscow but only by bribing the police (several thousands) 1804 Alexander I – Statutes improving the situation of Jews – right to study. Liberty of commerce, right to work on land

13. Pale of Settlement 1822 Jews forced to live in ghettos – commerce of grain receded (decline of Jewish merchnats in this field), nobles saw Jews as competitors – Far few jobs for the population in ghettos, increasing pauperization – Small number of Jewish millionaires collaborating with the state 1827 – Nicolas I – dark chapter, painful restrictions – Cantonist edict: military service of Jews (read Shtetl p. 115- 117) – valid until 1859 Untill 1917

14. Pale of Settlement Alexandr II – golden age; murdered in 1881 – abolished the cantonist system, „useful“ Jews can reside outside the Pale of Settlement – Jewish intellectual life in Moscow and St Petersbourg Alexander III - expulsions and persecutions of Jews – Permanent pogroms : Odessa and many other places a plight forced Jews to emigrate – 1881- 1914 about 2,5 milion Jews left Eastern Europe esp. to the USA (2 mio), Palestine and W Europe – Generally not welcome, uneasy conditions, high criminality, mafia – 1920´s immigration to the USA strictly limited – untill the end of WWII (fear of Jewish socialists, jealousy against Jewish capitalists)

15. Pale of Settlement 19th c. – industrialisation – Lodz: textile industry – Typically Jews worked in small workshops – Banking – Poles see Jews more and more as collaborators with the Russian occupier; anti-capitalism – Maskilim chose assimilation – big cities – Emancipation of women in traditional families

16. Prussia „Protected“ Jews (Schutzjuden) – Wealthy – German-speaking – Cities, encouraged to assimilate Tolerated Jews equal rights only in 1848

17. Habsburg Empire

18. Bohemia and Moravia Prague, 17th c.: European cultural center of Jewish life (10 000 Jews; 4 000 in Berlin; 3 000 in Vienna) 1726 Family Laws – Charles VI 1744 Expulsion of Jews - Maria Theresa

19. Bohemia and Moravia Joseph II, Edict of Tolerance and the following edicts Jews became almost equal and were allowed to study at public schools Banned from using hebrew and „Jewish language“ in their public and commercial records Germanization: names to be chosen from a government-prepared list Jews are liable for military service Abolished rabbinical juridical autonomy Did not gain the right of citizenship

20. Bohemia and Moravia 1849 – Jews can leave the Prague ghetto – Family laws abolished Jewish high bourgeoisie (industrialization) – German oriented x Jewish middle class – Czech oriented Czechs gradually identify Jews with the German ruler Many conversions Zionism

21. Galicia and Bukovina Joseph II – better situation than in Russia, difficult economic situation Higher taxes Military service Predominantly Hassidic Jews Before WWI 1 mio Jews in Galicia and 100 thousand in Bukovina

22. Hungary 1849 – short-lived emancipation – came in effect only in 1867 Antisemitic party in the Parliament 1877 University of Jewish studies opened in Budapest 5% of the population in 1910 = 900 000 pax – 23% Jewish population in Budapest, 44% in Munkacs (Mukachevo), 31% in Ungvár (Uzhorod) Antagonism between assimilated urban Jews and Orthodox immigrants from Russia, Galicia and Romania

23. Romania 1829 Treaty of Adrianople  Russian occupation of Wallachia and Moldavia; free foreign trade – Immigration of Jews from Russia and Galicia – Jews don´t have civic rights – despite that they gain a good social position (inn-keepers, estate leaseholders, finance) – Jewish children accepted to schools if they wore the same clothing as others Cuza – the first leader of Wallachia and Moldavia, 1859 – Wanted to grant universal suffrage and wanted to emancipate the peasants from forced labor – Expected financial support from Jews and Armenians – Jews hesitated to pay  universal suffrage exclusively for Christians

24. Romania Carol I of Romania, 1866 – Bucharest synagogue desecrated and demolished – Anti/semitism among Romanian intellectuals – argued that Jewish immigration had prevented the rise of an ethnic Romanian middle class 1890´s – laws excluding Jewish children from public education No assimilation – Jewish quarters, yiddish Mass emigration to Hungary Romanian Peasants´ Revolt – partly antisemitic (Jewish presence among estate leaseholders)  left-wing antisemitism in 1920´s (claim the peasants were being systematically exploited by Jews)

25. Serbia and Bulgaria 1878 – independence of Romania and Serbia, autonomy of Bulgaria following the Russo- Turkish war – equal rights for Jews – The only countries that had not emancipated the Jews were Russia and Romania – Bulgaria – mostly Sephardic Jews – Antisemitism limited – the Turk was hereditary enemy, no need for a scapegoat