From the Renaissance to the Scientific Revolution

From the Renaissance to the Scientific Revolution
Presented at Central University of Finance and Economics 中央财经大学 Beijing by 卜若柏 Robert Blohm Chinese Economics and Management Academy 中国经济与管理研究院 June 8, 15 & 22, 2008 2008年6月8日和15日和22日

Modern Philosophy Period
Diminishing authority of the Catholic Church Increasing authority of science The State increasingly replaces the Church as the entity in control of culture, but has less influence on philosophers than the Church had in the Middle Ages As in ancient Greece, kings are replaced by democracies and tyrants Feudal aristocracy loses its political and economic importance is replaced by the king in alliance with rich merchants who become absorbed into the aristocracy

Modern Philosophy Period (cont.d)
Liberal culture emerges, associated with commerce Rejection of ecclesiastical authority begins before acceptance of scientific authority: the Renaissance is too early for science is based on classical antiquity: a more distant past than the early Church or the Middle Ages

Copernicus’ (1543) heliocentric theory of planetary motion was the first irruption of science in the Renaissance improved upon only a century later by Kepler and Galileo who began a long fight between science and dogma. Authority of science: solely by appeal to reason within a set of procedural rules not enforced by penalties does not attempt to establish a complete system covering human morality. This does not mean that applications of science may not be subject to ethical considerations.

Emergence of practical science in attempts to change the world made science increasingly a technique, and decreasingly a doctrine about the nature of the world. 2 applications: in warfare: Galileo and Leonardo da Vinci improved artillery and fortifications machine production by steam and electricity

Growth of individualism because of emancipation from the Church. Scholastic discipline replaced by eclectic imitation of ancient models Nothing of importance produced in philosophy until the 17th century Moral and political anarchy in Italy gave rise to Machiavelli Display of genius in art and literature

Growth of individualism because of emancipation from the Church. (cont.d) Society unstable: Reformation Counter-Reformation Subjugation of Italy by Spain causing end of the good and bad of the Renaissance spread of the Renaissance to Northern Europe without the same anarchy

Growth of individualism because of emancipation from the Church. (cont.d) Persists into the individualism and subjectivism of modern philosophy, exemplified in Descartes, who builds up all knowledge from certainty of own existence clearness and distinctness Leibniz’s singular and autonomous “monads” Locke’s agreement or disagreement of ideas: in psychology “cognitive dissonance/consonance” Berkeley’s abolition of matter, whose disorderly consequence is avoided by his use of God Hume’s skepticism Kant’s and Fichte’s doctrines and temperaments Hegel, the bad aspects of whose philosophy are avoided in Spinoza Rousseau’s extension of subjectivity to ethics and politics, ending in the anarchy of Bakunin

Technique/technology (control) conferred a sense power, social not individual leaving individuals much less at the mercy of the environment requiring cooperation of people organized in a single direction requires a well-knit social structure is considered ethically neutral. Not so today. is a “can do”, not a “what to do” in which ends are no longer considered, as only the skilfulness of the process is valued inspires power philosophies, regarding everything non-human as mere raw-material

Need to combine the solidity of the Roman Empire with Augustine’s City of God. Anarchy ended in the ancient world by the brute force of the Roman Empire which could not be idealized religion by Catholic doctrine, which ultimately could not be actualized in practice

Italian Renaissance: 15th-Century Recovery of Antiquity
Petrarch (14th century) was first exemplifier of the modern outlook Fifteenth century cultivated Italians exemplified the modern outlook Only Leonardo and a few others had the respect for science that characterized innovators since the 17th century

Italian Renaissance:15th-Century Recovery of Antiquity(cont.d)
Emancipation from the Church Prompted only very partial emancipation from superstition, especially in the form of astrology First effect of emancipation from the Church was not to make men think rationally but to open their minds to everything from antiquity Magic and witchcraft might be wicked (and were being persecuted in Germany), but were not thought impossible Astrology was prized by freethinkers, with a popularity not seen since ancient times Was morally disastrous. Moral rules were discarded Rulers acquired their positions by treachery and retained it by ruthless cruelty Cardinals dining at the coronation of a pope brought their own wine and cupbearers for fear of being poisoned

Had reverence for antiquity prompting the same reverence for authority as medieval philosophers had, but for the authority of the ancients instead of the Church making scholars aware that a variety of opinions had been held by reputable authorities on almost every subject inciting individual genius to rival Hellenic achievements with a freedom unknown since Alexander’s time Social instability favored individual development, while every stable social system that had ever been devised had hampered the development of exceptional artistic or intellectual merit.

Italy became free from foreign influence after the death of Emperor Frederick II in the mid 13th century, for 2 1/2 centuries until invasion by French King Charles VIII 5 main states in Italy: Milan (including Genoa), Venice, Florence, the Papal Domain (including Rome), and Naples. Milan led resistance to feudalism fell under dominion of the plutocratic Visconti family for most of the independence period until the Sforza family under whom Milan became an object of Spanish-French rivalry until annexation by (Spanish and Holy Roman) Emperor Charles V.

Renaissance Italy

5 main states in Italy: Milan (including Genoa), Venice, Florence, the Papal Domain (including Rome), and Naples. (cont.d) Republic of Venice was an island never conquered by barbarians first regarded itself subject to the Eastern emperors had its trade primarily with the East by redirecting the 4th Crusade to Western conquest of Constantinople, improved.its trade which suffered with the fall of Constantinople to the Turks defeated politically by League of Cambrai formed in defense against Venetian acquisition of Italian mainland territory for food supply loss of independence to Napoleon economically by discovery of sea route to India

Italian Renaissance:15th Century Recovery of Antiquity(cont.d)
5 main states in Italy: Milan (including Genoa), Venice, Florence, the Papal Domain (including Rome), and Naples. (cont.d) Republic of Venice (cont.d) evolved politically from democracy to a close oligarchy governed by hereditary Great Council of leading families with executive power in a Council of Ten elected by the Great Council the ceremonial head of state the Doge elected for life with decisive influence diplomatically exceedingly astute with ambassadors’ reports that were remarkably penetrating are among the best sources for knowledge of the events they cover

5 main states in Italy: Milan (including Genoa), Venice, Florence, the Papal Domain (including Rome), and Naples. (cont.d) Florence most civilized city in the world chief source of the Renaissance nobles supported Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, but were defeated by the rich merchants democratic party of small men eventually overcame the rich merchants led to tyranny by the Medici family because of family’s wealth acquired in commerce, mining and other industries, who ruled for 300 years Cosimo, first clear Medici ruler --skill in manipulating elections --no official position --astute, conciliatory when possible, ruthless when necessary

5 main states in Italy: Milan (including Genoa), Venice, Florence, the Papal Domain (including Rome), and Naples. (cont.d) Florence (cont.d) democratic party of small men eventually (cont.d) led to tyranny by the Medici family because of family’s wealth acquired in commerce, mining and other industries, who ruled for 300 years (cont.d) Lorenzo the Magnificent (grandson) 18-year interruption to Medici rule, begun by Savonarola’s puritan revival --against gaiety and luxury, --away from free thought and --towards the piety of a simpler age a Medici pope governed as Grand Dukes of Tuscany until Florence became poor and unimportant

5 main states in Italy: Milan (including Genoa), Venice, Florence, the Papal Domain (including Rome), and Naples. (cont.d) Papal Domain temporal power of the pope increased greatly by methods that robbed the papacy of spiritual authority manifested by victory over the Conciliar Movement that represented the most earnest elements in the Church ecclesiastical opinion north of the Alps in opposition to --Italians (and to a lesser degree Spain) who were earnest about culture (elegant Latinity) --Pope Nicholas V, 1st humanist pope, who gave papal offices to scholars he respected for humanism rather than for piety or orthodoxy, including Epicurian Lorenzo Valla who became papal secretary and ----debunked the Donation of Constantine ----ridiculed the style of the Vulgate ----accused St Augustine of heresy

Italian Renaissance: 15th Century Recovery of Antiquity (cont.d)
5 main states in Italy: Milan (including Genoa), Venice, Florence, the Papal Domain (including Rome), and Naples. (cont.d) Papal Domain (cont.d) temporal power of the pope (cont.d) ultimately led to pagan warlike policy and immoral life of some popes Papacy acquired Romagna and Ancona --originally intended to be a principality for the pope’s son who together with the pope was --accused of innumerable murders Pagan behavior of the papacy prompted the Reformation

5 main states in Italy: Milan (including Genoa), Venice, Florence, the Papal Domain (including Rome), and Naples. (cont.d) Kingdom of Naples, including Sicily former personal kingdom of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II absolute Mohammedan-style enlightened but despotic absolute monarchy which gave no no power to the feudal nobility repossessed by the French (on the basis of Frederick’s Norman mother) with the Church’s support French were massacred, and the Kingdom eventually passed to Alphonso the Magnanimous, a distinguished patron of letters, and later to the Spanish.

Italy became diminished by Spain which ended the Italian Renaissance by defending Milan and Naples from the claims of France, allied with Florence leading the Counter-Reformation under Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, causing Rome to be sacked by a Protestant army, prompting the popes to be religious again unbelievably complex regional power politics where there was no feeling for national unity; the Italian states intrigued against each other, invoking the aid of France or Spain; minor self-made-tyrant princes allied themselves alternately with one of the larger States; constant wars (except between the Spanish and the French) were almost bloodless to avoid vocational risk to mercenary soldiers discovery of America, the Sea route to Asia, and settlement in Macau (澳门) by the Portuguese

Not a great period of achievement in philosophy because humanists were too busy acquiring knowledge of antiquity to produce anything original Achieved preliminaries for the greatness of 17th century philosophy by breaking down the rigid scholastic system which had become a straight-jacket reviving the study of Plato first hand, and encouraging first-hand study of Aristotle hastened by contact with Byzantine scholarship while Byzantine ecclesiastics maintained the superiority of Plato to Aristotle at the Council of Ferrara of the temporarily reunified Eastern and Western Churches

Achieved preliminaries for the greatness of 17th century philosophy by (cont.d) reviving the study of Plato first hand, and encouraging first-hand study of Aristotle (cont.d) promoted by Gemistus Pletho, an ardent Greek Platonist of doubtful orthodoxy Bessarion, a Greek who became a cardinal the Florentine Academy devoted to the study of Plato under founder Cosimo, and Lorenzo, de Medici. Cosimo died listening to one of Plato’s dialogues. regarding intellectual activity as a delightful social adventure not a cloistered meditation aiming at the preservation of a predetermined orthodoxy

Not a popular movement, but a movement of a small number of scholars and artists some of whom were avowed free-thinkers, and most of whom were impressed by the wickedness of contemporary popes, but glad to be employed by them, and therefore not disposed to inaugurate a reformation They no longer had the medieval feeling for the subtleties of theology and so could see no half-way house between the dilemma of --people living without vices or without power, or --clerics living in saintliness or without material benefit, achievable if you deny purgatory which is what Luther did to keep the rest of the Catholic faith

Not a popular movement, but a movement of a small number of scholars and artists (cont.d) most of whom were (cont.d) therefore not disposed to inaugurate a reformation (cont.d) Italian unorthodoxy was purely intellectual and did not prompt a popular movement away from the Church because the Church’s income was --only in small part from papal dominions, and consisted in --mainly tribute from the entire Catholic world because the pope held the keys to heaven; so, questioning this system risked ----the impoverishment of Italy and ----loss of Italy’s position in the Western world. who were encouraged by liberal patrons, especially the Medici and the humanist popes, lacked by Petrarch and Boccacio in the 14th century. (cont.d)

Machiavelli Florentine. Father a lawyer, neither rich nor poor.
In his 20s when Savonarola’s miserable end made a great impression on him: “Armed prophets have conquered and unarmed ones have failed” Subsequently named to minor post in Florentine government Opposed the Medici and was arrested when they returned to power, but he was acquitted and lived in retirement in the country near Florence Died the year of Charles V’s troops’ sack of Rome, which marked the end of the Italian Renaissance

Machiavelli (cont.d) A scientific and empirical political philosophy, based on the anecdotal evidence of his own experience of affairs Determines the means to achieve ends, regardless of the moral value of the ends themselves Intellectual honesty about potential political dishonesty unprecedented at any other time or place, except in Greece among men whose theoretical training was by sophists and practical training was in the wars of petty states (the political accompaniment of individual genius)

Machiavelli (cont.d) The Prince
Dedicated to Lorenzo II de Medici and written to win his favor, vainly it turns out One-sided view of his doctrine, fully presented in Discourses: does not mention republics in The Prince How principalities are won, held and lost. Many examples in 15th century Italy: few legitimate rulers even popes secured election by corrupt means no one shocked by cruelties and treacheries that would disqualify a man in the 18th or 19th century

Machiavelli (cont.d) The Prince (cont.d)
Recommends for imitation the skill of his personal acquaintance, the pope’s son, Caesar Borgia, who prompted the papal acquisition of Romagna and Ancona. Borgia’s failure was due only to “the extraordinary malignity of fortune” due to his own illness upon his father’s death, and his consequent inability to prevent his bitterest opponent from succeeding his father. Chapter “Of Ecclesiastical Principalities” (written in consideration that a Medici had just become Pope) The only difficulty is to acquire them Once acquired, they are defended by ancient religious customs. The princes do not need armies because they are upheld by higher causes, “exhalted and maintained by God”. Compare Stalin’s question: “How many divisions does the Pope (Pius XII) have?”

Places eminent men in an ethical hierarchy. In order of preference: founders of religion, of monarchies or republics, then literary men. Bad men: Destroyers of religions, subverters of republics or kingdoms, and enemies of virtue or letters are bad Establishers of tyrannies, like Caesar. Brutus, Caesar’s assassin, was therefore good (in reversal of Dante’s judgement which does not reflect classical literature) Religion serves the prominent purpose of social cement in the State. Approves of Romans’ pretension to believe in auguries and punish those who disregarded them.

Church has done two bad things: It has undermined religious belief by its temporal conduct Popes’ temporal power and the policy it has inspired have prevented the unification of Italy. Twofold bad influences of the Church The nearer people are to it, the less religious they are It has inspired Italians to become irreligious and bad Cannot therefore admire Caesar Borgia’s purpose, only his skill. Quasi-artistic admiration of skill, for example as a military strategist, was at its historical peak in the Renaissance Appeals to the Medici to liberate Italy from the French and Spanish barbarians

A ruler will perish if he is always good: he must be as cunning as a fox and as fierce as a lion. A ruler should keep faith when it pays to do so, but not otherwise A ruler should be able to disguise his true character, taking advantage of men’s readiness to be deceived to obey their present necessities A ruler must therefore appear to have the conventional virtues, for example seem to be religious. (No longer possible before people who have read Machiavelli!)

Machiavelli (cont.d) Discourses. A commentary on Livy, a chronicler of Romans More republican and more liberal. Like Montesquieu. Explicit doctrine of checks and balances: princes, nobles, and people should all have a part in the constitution and “then these three powers will keep each other reciprocally in check.” Lycurgus’ Spartan constitution was best for having the best balance; Solon’s was too democratic and thereby led to tyranny; The Roman constitution was good owing to the conflict of Senate and people.

Machiavelli (cont.d) Discourses. A commentary on Livy, a chronicler of Romans (cont.d) Political liberty requires a certain kind of personal virtue in the citizens Since probity and religion are still common in Germany, there are many republics. Tuscany has preserved its liberty because it contains no castles or gentlemen. The people are wiser (“the voice of God”) and more constant than princes (contrary to the opinion of Livy and most other writers).

Machiavelli (cont.d) Discourses. A commentary on Livy, a chronicler of Romans (cont.d) The Italian Renaissance city-states gave actuality to Greek and Roman Republican political thought. The Neoplatonists, the Arabs and the Schoolmen took little interest in the political writings of Plato and Aristotle because the City-State political systems had disappeared The love of “liberty” and the theory of checks and balances come from antiquity Power is for those to seize it in free competition. Unlike in Northern writers as late as Locke, there are no Christian or biblical grounds for legitimate power in political argument. Preference for popular government is not derived from any idea of “rights”, but from observation that popular governments are less cruel , unscrupulous and inconsistent than tyrannies.

Machiavelli (cont.d) Three very important political ends: national independence, security, and a well-ordered constitution. Best constitution apportions legal rights among prince, nobles and people in proportion to their real power: this makes revolutions more difficult and stability more likely stability more likely, the greater the power given to the people.

Machiavelli (cont.d) Effective means are determined by a science of success, for which there are more examples of successful sinners than successful saints. Power is required to achieve any political end, and power often depends on opinion. So seeming more virtuous than your adversary is advantageous, and easier if you are virtuous even before a cynical population. Virtue was an important element of the Church’s rise in power in the later Middle Ages.

Machiavelli (cont.d) People from a large city are more corruptible in establishing a republic than mountain people. Politicians will behave better if they depend on a virtuous population North of the Alps which was shocked enough to stage the Reformation versus Renaissance Italy’s cynical population if their crimes can be made widely known, than if there is strict censorship under their control. Mechanistic versus evolutionary. Machiavelli tries to create a community all in one piece, like Lycurgus and Solon. Not evolutionary: community is an organic growth that the statesman can affect only to a limited extent.

Renaissance North of the Alps
later than Italy entangled with the Reformation brief period (beginning of 16th century), when new learning spread through England, France, and Germany not anarchic or amoral associated with piety and public virtue involved applying standards of scholarship to the Bible sought to obtain a more accurate text than the Vulgate

Renaissance North of the Alps (cont.d)
less brilliant, more solid than the Italian Renaissance less concerned with display of learning more anxious to spread learning as widely as possible represented by Erasmus and Sir Thomas More who were close friends. Both were learned, but Erasmus more than More despised scholastic philosophy aimed at ecclesiastical reform from within: deplored the protestant schism

Renaissance North of the Alps (cont.d)
represented by Erasmus and Sir Thomas More who were close friends. Both (cont.d) were leaders of thought before Luther More martyred afterward Erasmus sank into ineffectiveness represented temper of a pre-revolutionary age of demand for moderate reform timid men not yet frightened into reaction by extremists dislike of everything systematic in theology and philosophy

Erasmus Dutch, father was a priest with knowledge of Greek
Parents died and guardians took his money and cajoled him to be a monk Secretary to Bishop of Cambrai. Travelled. Highly accomplished in Latin. Greek slight at first. admired Lorenzo Valla regarded Latinity as compatible with true devotion, like Augustine and St. Jerome (forgetting Jerome’s dream reprimanding him for Latin)

Erasmus (cont.d) at University of Paris he found no interest
best days were over with the end of the Conciliar Movement old disputes persisted between Thomists and (Duns)Scotists, called the “Ancients”, and between them and Occamists, called “Terminists” or “Moderns”, and between both camps, once reconciled, and humanists making headway outside university circles he hated scholastics

Erasmus (cont.d) in England liked the fashion of kissing girls
resolved to learn Greek in order to edit St. Jerome and bring out a new Latin translation of the Greek Testament, which he accomplished. discovered inaccuracies in the Vulgate of later use to protestants gave up trying to learn Hebrew

Erasmus (cont.d) The Praise of Folly
is dedicated to Sir Thomas More, in playful reference to his Latin name “moros” as meaning “fool” expresses Protestantism’s eventual rejection of Hellenic intellectualism in favor of the sentimentalism of the North (ancient Greeks viewed Northern races as “spirited” and Southern as “intelligent”) is spoken by Folly in her own person says there is no marriage without folly, no happiness without flattery or self-love says happiest are those closest to the brutes and divested of reason, or full of national pride and professional conceit

Erasmus (cont.d) The Praise of Folly (cont.d)
ridicules priests who compute the time of each soul’s residence in purgatory, and worship of saints and the Virgin attacks monastic orders for having very little religion in them yet being highly in love with themselves and reducing religion to minute punctilio imagines their self-defense at the Last Judgement when Christ berates them as “scribes and pharisees” notes how these men are feared on earth for the many secrets they know from the confessional criticizes popes’ departure from humility and poverty by too frequent use of non-spiritual sanctions against enemies

Erasmus (cont.d) The Praise of Folly (cont.d)
promotes an alternative kind of folly in the form of Christian simplicity in rejection of scholastic philosophy and learned doctors whose Latin was unclassical as the first expression of Rousseau’s later claim that religion comes from the heart, not the head, and that all elaborate theology is superfluous. during second visit to England stayed for 5 years, in London and at Cambridge influenced the English public school curriculum until the 20th century, in its thorough grounding in Greek and Latin including translation, verse, and prose composition, including study of Plato avoidance of science which, while intellectually dominant since the 17th century, was still thought unworthy of the attention of a gentleman or a clergyman

Erasmus (cont.d) was unashamedly literary
in sharing the curiosity of Renaissance men in unusual details, rarities and anomalies that were basically literary, sought not in the world directly but in old books, Greek or Latin, considered reliable enough, and tolerated as by Montaigne and Shakespeare in a confusion alongside the decreasingly compatible system of Aristotle’s physics, Ptolemy’s astronomy, and Galen’s medicine but that were scientific in later centuries, sought directly in nature by observing savages and strange animals (as Wilhelm von Humboldt did in North and South America), and welcomed as support for system-building to catch up with the facts.

Erasmus (cont.d) was unashamedly literary (cont.d)
in Enchiridion militis christiani containing advice to illiterate soldiers to learn the Bible, Plato, Ambrose, Jerome and Augustine a vast collection of Latin proverbs (and Greek later added) to enable people to write idiomatically in Colloquies, teaching people to speak in Latin about everyday matters thereby facilitating communication among students from all over Western Europe attending the University of Paris in the only international language.

Erasmus (cont.d) during the Reformation in Julius exclusus
criticized ecclesiastical abuses and the wickedness of popes described the failure of Pope Julius II to get into heaven opposed Luther for Luther’s violence and support for war in a work savagely attacked by Luther that defended free will that Luther rejected by following and exaggerating St. Augustine while defending the Catholic side, became increasingly unimportant because of his timidity in an age of the new virtue of heroism and the new vice of intolerance

Sir Thomas More pious humanist removed from Oxford for
seeking to learn Greek and thereby showing sympathy with Italian infidels apparently discouraged by Erasmus from joining an austere monastic order followed his father into the legal profession as Member of Parliament opposed king’s demand for new taxes returned to legal practice under new King Henry VIII who knighted More and employed him on various embassies

Sir Thomas More (cont.d)
appointed Chancellor. From that office he adopted the unusual practice of refusing all gifts from litigants resigned in opposition to the king’s divorce and remarriage to whose ceremony he declined an invitation. refused to take the Oath of Supremacy required under the Act of Supremacy making the king head of the Church of England. convicted of high treason on the basis of dubious testimony that he said that Parliament could not make the king head of the Church.

wrote Utopia which is named for an imaginary island in the southern hemisphere where everything is done in the best possible way which is like Plato’s Republic insofar as all things are held in common on the basis that the public good cannot flourish where there is private property where all towns are on the same plan and all private houses are exactly alike have no locks on the doors can be entered by everyone change occupants every ten years to prevent any feeling of ownership

wrote Utopia (cont.d) Farms contain at least 40 people are under the rule of an old and wise master and mistress Fashions never change Everyone works three hours before dinner and three hours after, and plays for an hour after supper There are early-morning lectures There is no production of unnecessary luxuries otherwise due to the existence of the rich Surplus or deficit production is adjusted by changing the length of the working day

wrote Utopia (cont.d) Some men are elected to become men of learning who are exempted from other work or, otherwise, provide all government personnel It is an indirectly elected representative democracy headed by a prince elected for life but who can be deposed for tyranny If any family is too large, the surplus children are moved into another family People eat in common halls, with cooking done by women, the waiting done by the older children, and the other children “standing by with marvellous silence” and content to eat only scraps given to them from the table.

wrote Utopia (cont.d) Men and women are sharply punished if not virgin when they marry Bride and groom see each other naked before marriage Divorce is allowed for adultery and sometimes solely because both parties desire it. The guilty party cannot remarry. Breakers of wedlock are punished by bondage Foreign trade is conducted exclusively to get iron.

wrote Utopia (cont.d) All learn to fight, but are not obligated to fight and try to use mercenaries instead, in wars waged for three reasons defend own territory deliver the territory of an ally free an oppressed nation from tyranny It aims at getting other nations in debt and to work off the debt by supplying mercenaries There is no money, and gold is used for chamberpots and chains, and pearls and diamonds are used as ornaments for infants It gives a reward for killing an enemy prince, higher for bringing him alive, and even higher if he gives himself up.

wrote Utopia (cont.d) It is too much inclined to view felicity as pleasure It has many religions, and only those who believe in God and immortality are counted citizens and eligible for a role in public life Priests are few, with honor and no power, and may be women if old and widowed Patients with painful incurable diseases are encouraged to commit suicide Many were converted to Christianity because Christ was opposed to private property There is no wanton killing (hunting) of animals It has a mild criminal law with no death penalty for theft. According to Russell it would be too dull for lack of diversity.

Reformation &CounterReforma-tion: Medievalist Revival
Represent the rebellion of less civilized nations against the intellectual domination of Italy The Counter-Reformation (conducted by Spain at the height of Spain’s power) was a revolt only against the intellectual and moral freedom of Renaissance Italy: it enhanced the pope’s power, while it fought the easy-going laxity of the Borgias and the Medici The Reformation (conducted mainly by Germany) was also political and theological: against the pope’s authority, and tribute to be paid for the power of the keys to heaven

Reformation & CounterReforma-tion: Medievalist Revival (cont.d)
Reformation in England is reflected in Shakespeare’s portrayal of villains as Italians, and involved intellectual repudiation of what Italy had done for civilization Reformation leaders Luther and Calvin, and Counter-Reformation leader St. Ignatius of Loyola, were medieval in philosophy and led an intellectually barren 16th century

Reformation & CounterReforma- tion: Medievalist Revival (cont.d)
Luther and Calvin reverted to St. Augustine’s teaching on the relation of the soul to God, but not his teaching on the Church diminished the power of churches by abolishing purgatory from which souls of the dead could be delivered by the ceremony of the mass rejecting the doctrine of Indulgences, upon which much of papal revenue depended reinstating the doctrine of predestination which made the soul’s fate after death wholly independent of the actions of priests.

Luther and Calvin (cont.d) enhanced the power of kings Luther agreed to recognize a protestant prince as head of the Church in his own country, in Germany, Scandinavia, England and Holland (after revolt from Spain) They opposed individualistic Protestants like the Anabaptists in Germany whose doctrine spread to Holland and England in conflict between Cromwell and the Long Parliament over whether the State should decide religious matters in wars of religion weariness from which led to growth in the belief in religious toleration that had originated in late medieval German philosopher Nicholas of Cues, and that was a source of the movement toward 18th and 19th century liberalism

St. Ignatius of Loyola founded the Jesuit order to counter the rapid success of Protestantism by prompting Catholic princes to practice relentless persecution on a military model of warfare against heresy unquestioning obedience to the General of the order disciplined, able, devoted, and skilful propagandists reestablished terror of the Inquisition in the wake of conquering Spanish armies, even in Italy after a century of free thought famous for missionary zeal in Asia, including China popular as confessors because they were more lenient than other ecclesiastics except towards heresy

St. Ignatius of Loyola (cont.d) founded the Jesuit order (cont.d) valued for giving the best education obtainable whenever theology did not intervene taught mathematics to Descartes brought to China Western axiomatic/deductive mathematical method (Euclid) but also Aristotle’s logic and cosmology which --suppressed Copernicus’ heliocentric model of the solar system and eventually Newton’s physics and the calculus --reinforced the Chinese Imperial homocentric model of the universe rejected those elements of St. Augustine’s teaching that the Protestants emphasized. Loyola believed in free will as opposed to predestination that salvation was by both faith and good works, not by faith alone

Resulted in abandonment of the medieval hope of doctrinal unity and the result was increased freedom to think for oneself, even about fundamentals of religion ability to escape persecution by living in other countries of diverse creeds decreased interest in theological subjects increased interest in secular learning especially mathematics and science enabling the 17th century to make the most notable advance since ancient Greek times

Romanesque/Baroque Architecture of the Jesuit Counter-Reformation
“The Jesuit Counter Reformation weapon was Transubstantiation presented in the most sensual and irresistible form Rome had yet devised.” By the 1620’s the Jesuits were building their baroque churches not only across Europe but to the bemusement of Indians in both Americas, and in India, China and Japan. These opulent mass houses are particularly well exemplified in Prague and Vienna. When lit, these buildings boast acres of pink and blue marble, gold coving, with surrealistic, dimension-defying, frescoes, gold cherubs and angels, all directing the eye to the central unmistakable dazzling gold sunburst of ten, twenty or thirty feet circumference with its glass centre containing the host. The biggest and most gaudy monstrances Romanism had ever seen were the definitive badge of the Jesuit’s Counter Reformation offensive. ‘Try and keep simple folk away from our dazzling shows, our fully lit, incensed, musical masses in our magical Churches all centering on our breathtaking, golden sunbursts, Ye Reformers,’ confidently boasted the Jesuits. ‘How can your simple memorial rival us?’

Carolus-Borromeuskerk, Antwerp
Jesuit Church of the Gesu, Roma Notre-Dame de Quebec Cathedral Santa Susanna, Roma Basilica di Superga, near Torino Sanctuary of Our Lady of Melliena, Malta Les Invalides, Paris Church of St. Nicholas, Prague St. Joseph's Church in Klimontów St. Mary Church in S'wieta Lipka

Pazaislis Monastery in Kaunas, Estonia
São Francisco de Assis in São João del Rei Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Spain Church of St. Michel in Leuven, Belgium Convent of Mafra, Portugal Church of Ss. Sebastian y Santa Prisca, Taxco, Mexico San Francisco de Asís Church, Lima, 1673 South Cathedral, Beijing East Cathedral, Beijing

Southern Church Eastern Church
When the Jesuits came to China, they first secured their foothold in Beijing. According to Chinese custom of making important architectures face southward, most Catholic churches in Beijing face south Southern Church The oldest Catholic Church inside Beijing, the Southern Cathedral, Nan Tang (南堂), or Xuanwumen Church, also known as the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (宣武门天主堂), is located at 181 Qianmen West Street in the Xuanwumen district. The church was first erected in the middle of the 16th century in the late Ming Dynasty. When the Italian missionary Matteo Ricci came to China during the reign of Ming Emperor Wanli the emperor provided him with a residence which stood slightly west of the cathedral. Matteo Ricci first built a small scripture hall (宣武门礼拜堂) on the site in 1605, in Chinese style with a small cross atop the entrance. The chapel was rebuilt as a church in 1650 by order of Qing Emperor Shunzhi for German Jesuit Johann Adam Schall von Bell. The new church received the honour of a Ceremonial gateway with the words 钦宗天道 (Respect the Teachings of the Way of Heaven). Emperor Shunzhi visited the church no less than twenty four times, bestowing upon it a stone stela with the words 'built by Imperial Order' inscribed upon it and still standing on the site. ( Eastern Church Located east of central Wangfujing Street, it is called the Catholic East Church, Dong Tang, or St. Joseph’s Cathedral. The East Church is built on land granted in the 12th year (1655) of Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty to two Jesuit priests Father Magallanes and Ludovico Buglio by the imperial family. It began as a small church known as the Second Church of Beijing. Later the church was ruined in earthquakes and wars several times. It was rebuilt in The Beijing Municipal Government set aside RMB 130 million yuan for the restoration of the church in Unlike the other churches, it faces west. (

Jesuits in Beijing The Jesuits arrived in China under the auspices of the Portuguese padroado which tried to involve them in promoting the colonial and imperialistic designs of Portugal while planting the Roman Catholic Church in China. To offset such pressure French king Louis XIV sent a mission of five Jesuit "mathematicians" to China in an attempt to break the Portuguese predominance. But the Jesuits [were originally possessed by a loftier] dream - the creation of a Sino-Christian civilization that would match the Roman-Christian civilization of the West. [The Jesuits had a two-fold strategy for evangelizing China:] (1) Matteo Ricci had discovered through his studies of Confucius that the Chinese originally had a monotheistic concept of a Supreme Being. Ricci felt that it would be possible to "prove that the Christian doctrines were already laid down in the classical works of the Chinese people, albeit in disguise". He saw that this new type of approach would require a special dispensation from the Pope. This was granted. Indeed, the Jesuits and their followers were convinced that "the day would come when with one accord all missionaries in China would look in the ancient texts for traces of primal revelation". He was merely adopting the same approach toward Chinese thought that the early church fathers had adopted toward Greek Philosophy. Their objective was to identify all the elements of truth which the Chinese literary heritage had contained, to supplement them with the insights of the Western understanding of the natural order, and then to introduce what they saw as the wholly distinctive truths of the Christian Gospel. The Jesuits were very active in transmitting knowledge of Chinese culture to Europe, such as translating Confucius's works into European languages. Ricci had already started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and Fathers Philippe Couplet and Prospero Intorcetta published Confucius Sinarum Philosophus, the life and works of Confucius in Latin in It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly those who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Christianity. (2) The Jesuits were (nearly) the only missionaries to adopt the strategy of [trading the benefits of teaching and improving] science [in exchange for opportunity] for evangelization, & no other mission in the world used science so extensively & systematically as in China. [The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese & aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation & carried out the first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture & made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about Chinese science. Competence in mathematics…was a requirement for selecting Jesuits for the China mission, & most Jesuits followed the curriculum prescribed in the Ratio Studiorum (1599) in China as well, which states: “Concerning mathematics, the mathematician shall teach, in this order, the [first] six books of Euclid, arithmetic, the sphere [of Sacrobosco], cosmography, astronomy, the theory of the planets, the Alphonsine Tables, optics, & timekeeping.Only the second year philosophy students shall hear these lectures, but sometimes, with permission,also the students of dialectics”

Jesuits in Beijing (cont.d)
The Jesuits’ strategy was vindicated. While they fought with the Ming loyalists against the Manchus, the victorious Manchu elected to receive the new astronomical and calendrical techniques as an indication of their intention to maintain traditional Confucian rites and rituals as accurately as possible. It is during the Qing dynasty of the Manchus that the Jesuits appear at court in an official capacity. During the early 17th century, a period of consolidation of Manchu rule, “predictive competitions” between Chinese, Muslim, and European systems were organized by Chinese authorities to uncover which methods gave the most consistently correct results. By 1645 Jesuit success in these “competitions” led to widespread reform and modification of traditional Chinese methods. In the early 18th century, a dispute within the Catholic Church, arose over whether Chinese folk religion rituals and offerings to the emperor constituted paganism or idolatry. This tension was led to what became known as the "Rites Controversy," a bitter struggle that broke out after Ricci's death and lasted for over a hundred years. At first the focal point of dissension was Ricci's contention that the ceremonial rites of Confucianism and ancestor worship were primarily social and political in nature and could be practiced by converts. The Dominicans charged that they were idolatrous; all acts of respect to the sage and one's ancestors were nothing less than the worship of demons. A Dominican carried the case to Rome, where it dragged on and on, largely because no one in the Vatican knew Chinese culture sufficiently to provide the pope with a ruling. Naturally, the Jesuits appealed to the Chinese emperor, who endorsed Ricci's position. The timely discovery of the Tang Dynasty Nestorian monument in 1623 enabled the Jesuits to strengthen their position with the court by meeting an objection the Chinese often expressed - that Christianity was a new religion. They could now point to concrete evidence that a thousand years earlier the Christian gospel had been proclaimed in China; it was not a new but an old faith. The emperor then decided to expel all missionaries who failed to support Ricci's position. The Spanish Franciscans, however, did not retreat without further struggle. Eventually they persuaded Pope Clement XI that the Jesuits were making dangerous accommodations to Chinese sensibilities. In 1704 they proscribed against the ancient use of the words Shang Di (supreme emperor) and Tian (heaven) for God, and poorly . Naturally the Jesuits appealed this decision. [A poorly-prepared papal legate arrogantly asked the Emperor to stop siding with the Jesuits and thereby made all too obvious two things that] had been decently concealed through the seventeenth century: (a) that Confucianism and its rituals are incompatible with Christianity ( and (b) unlike the priests of other religions in China, Catholic missionaries were obedient agents of a foreign power whose royal patrons could wield them to subvert imperial authority. This had the effect of making all clergy less welcome in China. ( The controversy nevertheless raged on. In 1742 Pope Benedict XIV officially opposed the Jesuits, forbade all worship of ancestors, and terminated further discussion of the issue, [despite the resulting growing persecution of the Church in China and the clergy’s declining effectiveness there].

Jesuits in Beijing (cont.d)
The Jesuits succeeded in planting a Chinese church that still stood the test of time. “Three of the most important Chinese Christians, Xu Guangqi 徐光启 (1562━1633) Director of the Ming Imperial Board of Rites, Li Zhizao 李之藻 (1565━1630), and Yang Tingyun 杨廷筠 (1562━1627) are called the Three Pillars of the Chinese Church. By 1844, Roman Catholics and may have totalled 240,000; in 1901 the figure reached 720,490” [Kenneth Scott, Christian Missions in China, p.83]. [Ultimately] Jesuit financial policy [may also have contributed to] difficulties faced by Church [like those in Reformation Europe]. Their missionaries involved themselves in business ventures of various sorts; they became landlords of income-producing properties, developed the silk industry for Western trade, and organized money-lending operations on a large scale. [Such practices] eventually generated misunderstanding and tension between the foreign community and the Chinese people. The Communists held this against them as late as the mid-twentieth century [despite] Pope John XXIII’s decree in his encyclical Princeps Pastorum that Ricci had become "the model of missionaries.” in his Sinization policy--a reversal of the Vatican’s self-defeating interventionist policy in the Rites Controversy of 250 years before

Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (徐光启) (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclid's Elements (几何原本) published in 1607.

Portrait of Johann Adam Schall von Bell

Above: Francis Xavier (left), Ignatius of Loyola (right) and Christ at the upper center. Below: Matteo Ricci (right) and Xu Guangqi (left), all in dialogue towards the evangelization of China.

Jesuits in China, top (left to right): Father Matteo Ricci, Father Adam Schaal, Le Pere Ferdinand Verbiest bottom left: Paul Siu (Xu Guangqi), Colao or Prime Minister of State; bottom right: Candide Hiu, grand-daughter of Colao Paul Siu. Illustration de la mission chinoise des jésuites. Provenance: Portraits gravés in P. DU HALDE, Description géographique ? , tome 3. Paris, MAE, Bibliothèque.

In the northwest section of Beijing, surrounded by pine & cypress in what is now the School of the Beijing Municipal Committee, Zhalan Jesuit cemetery has lain in silence for four-hundred years. Tombstones of famous Jesuit missionaries, the Italian Matteo Ricci, the German Johann Adam Schall von Bell, the Belgian Ferdinand Verbiest, are located in a small yard. Stones of other successors are located in a larger yard adjacent. The cemetery has a 400 year history. In 1611, the Jesuit Matteo Ricci was the first to be buried here on land given by the Ming Wanli emperor. Ricci was provided with an elaborate state burial. Many other missionaries were buried here after him. Some of them are famous scientists, artists, musicians, and doctors. In 1654, the Qing emperor Shunzhi gave a piece of land on the western side of Ricci's tomb to Adam Schall. A small church was built. The area was repeatedly enlarged. By 1949, tombs of several hundred Western missionaries had moved here from Tenggong cemetery. At present, there are 63 tombstones extant. They belong to missionaries from different countries: 14 Chinese or Macanese, 14 Portuguese, 10 Italians, 10 Germans, 9 French, 3 Czechs, 2 Belgians, and 1 Slovene. Ricci Tomb

Matteo Ricci’s technical explanation in Chinese of European astronomy was no doubt written with the help of his friend Li Chih-tsao, who contributed a preface. Notice the main circle's division into the twelve houses, and their polar projection. The work contains a preface by Ricci, as well as one by Li Chih-tsao, with a postscript by another Chinese friend. The prefaces give only the rough date "the end of the Wan-li reign" (i.e. ca ).

Matteo Ricci’s Memory Palace
Matteo Ricci described the “memory palace” technique in his 1596 work, A Treatise On Mnemonics, but he advanced it only as an aid to passing examinations (a kind of rote) rather than as an instrument of new composition, though it had traditionally been taught, both in dialectics and in rhetoric, as an instrument of composition. Ricci was trying to gain favour with the Chinese imperial service, which required a notoriously difficult entry examination (Spence 1984). ( Ricci wrote it in Chinese for the governor of Jiangxi Province. In it he recreated the medieval European idea of a memory palace -- an edifice you build in your mind and furnish with mnemonic devices. Recollection is a process of walking through the rooms and associating information with their contents. Those contents must be distinct and dramatic. Suppose a modern medical student were to build a memory palace. In one room he might put a policeman on his horse, leading a manacled prisoner. That triggers the phrase, Some Criminals Have Underestimated Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The first letters of each word, S, C, H, U, R, C, M, and P, identify the shoulder and arm bones -- S for scapula, C for clavicle, Humerus, Ulna, Radius, and so on. He can fill his whole building with bizarre people and things to aid his memory of bones, muscles, and nerves. The memory palace idea was important before we had millions of the new printed books -- when most knowledge had to be carried by rote. But printed books were driving out the art of memory and they were bringing in the Reformation. Now we could write it down, forget it, and look it up when we needed it. Ricci may've been bringing modern reform to the Catholic Church, but he was also leading the Chinese back to the interior life of the medieval church, a world where the mind was supposed to operate with minimal instruction from outside influence. By now, Ricci's flamboyant tricks of memory were falling from favor. Europe was condemning them as magic and showmanship. But this was China. (

Matteo Ricci’s Memory Palace (cont.d)
From the New York Times review of the book The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci, by Jonathan D. Spence, the George Burton Adams Professor of History at Yale University ( “Four imaginary representations are taken from Ricci's Treatise but they don't entirely fit the Treatise’s title, because they are not identified with specific artifacts that might be found in a palace. Rather, they remain purely mental, although they are given concrete spatial locations in the four corners of the Palace's reception hall. Each image is linked to a particular Chinese ideograph, whose nuances and ambiguities it is meant to explicate; and, while the system would of course be valuable to Ricci himself in his efforts to learn Chinese, it is hard to see why the Chinese would need reminding about the meaning of their own language. Apparently, the four images were meant only to illustrate how the mnemonic system worked. Its attraction for the Chinese lay in the prospect of their using it to help memorize the Confucian classics they needed to know to pass examinations for the government bureaucracy. Ricci associates his 1st image with the Chinese ideograph for war (wu 武 ), and he suggests that the word be represented in the mind by two warriors, one of them about to strike the other with his spear, while the second tries to deflect the blow by grasping the first man's wrist. This duality of aggressor and victim is contained in the ideograph itself, which can be divided into halves, the one meaning ''spear'’ (yi 弋) the other ''prevent’’ (zhi 止). The image of the two warriors also suggests a curious ambiguity in the psychology of Ricci's Chinese hosts: they are, he notes, at once given to displays of might and to public beatings (he was himself permanently lamed by a gang of young rowdies), yet almost womanish in their readiness to flee danger and in their contempt for military valor. The 2nd mnemonic image is by far the most elusive of the four: a Moslem woman (nv 女) from Western (xi 西) China, who, through a complex series of associations (which the modern reader will have trouble remembering!), is made to represent the idea of fundamental belief (yao 要). These chapters culminate in his fantasy of converting the Ming Emperor Wanli, and with him the entire Chinese nation. The 3rd image is suggested by the ideograph for profit (li 利), which Ricci proposes to represent through the image of a farmer ready to cut his crops (he 禾) with a sickle (dao |]). This suggests Ricci’s consciousness of the worldly objectives of his European sponsors. The 4th mnemonic image is of a maidservant holding a child. The image represents the ideograph for goodness (hao 好), which in turn can be divided into separate ideographs, one meaning ''woman'’ (nv 女), the other ''child” (zi 子). This suggests Ricci’s experience among the Chinese who found the Crucifixion horrifying but responded warmly to the Virgin.

Matteo Ricci’s Memory Palace (cont.d)
Ricci was much closer to his Ming contemporaries than to us, since the Chinese already had an indigenous mnemonic tradition that deviated from Ricci's only in its exclusively literary uses. To a certain extent, memory palaces are no longer necessary because we have such easy access to books (which were rare and expensive in Ricci's day). But more important, I believe, we have an entirely different conception of memory. We seek to remember things not in terms of visual and spatial representations but according to their logical - or, in some cases, psychological - connections. Where both Ricci and his Chinese colleagues set great store by their ability to remember things ''backwards and forwards,'' we find such flexibility pointless, indeed, frivolous. Today, for example, one looks in vain (outside of the movies) for a teacher who tells her students that they should concentrate on memorizing dates and facts. Instead, students are urged to ''learn how to think'' or to ''identify underlying patterns.'' Our visual sense, as John Ruskin noted over a century ago, has become impoverished, and our attention to the inner world of the mind and the feelings correspondingly elaborate. Hence we have no trouble remembering the abstractions that are the subject of Ricci's images - war, belief, profit, goodness - but the images themselves quickly lose their specificity. To the extent that we retain them at all, it is because we have managed to associate them with their respective abstractions. Naturally, we pride ourselves on this shift from a mechanical to an organic conception of memory, but one of the benefits of Mr. Spence's book is to suggest that something has been lost in the process. Matteo Ricci's memory, as it is brought to life in these pages, boasts a sumptuousness and grandeur whose disappearance we have reason to regret. We may have too glibly abandoned his richly appointed and lavishly detailed palace for the sleek, efficient, but ultimately sterile world of conceptual condominiums.”

China Preface dated 1612 This elegant and finely engraved Chinese book on Western hydraulics by the Jesuit Sabatino de Ursis reveals both the importation of specific techniques and constructions to China and the eagerness with which many Chinese accepted European technical learning. The list of sponsors, a preface by a well-known convert who was the most skilled of all his peers in mathematics, and the textual breaks before Christian appellations are all evidence of the warm reception that Western technology received. Shown here is a traditional European force pump.

Ancient Observatory (Guanxiangtai 观象台)
Initially built in the Ming Dynasty (around AD. 1442), Ancient Observatory is one of the oldest observatories in the world. In the early 17th century, the Jesuits, led by Matteo Ricci ( ) and followed by Adam Schall von Bell, impressed the emperor and the imperial astronomers with their scientific knowledge, particularly the accuracy of their predictions of eclipses. The Belgian Jesuit Father Verbiest ( ) was appointed to the Imperial Astronomical Bureau (Qintianjian 钦天监), where he designed a set of astronomical instruments in 1674; now 8 of them still sit on the observatory platform.

China Visit of Jesuit Cardinal Godfried Danneels (Primate of Belgium), Four Belgian Bishops and the Board members of the Ferdinand Verbiest Foundation Being Ancient Observatory, April 13, 2008 Visiting the Old Observatory where Verbiest was director The Ferdinand Verbiest Institute is a Belgium-based institute hosted by the Catholic University of Leuven and committed to the dialogue between Europe and China. The Institute was named after the Belgian Jesuit-astronomer at the Chinese court, Ferdinand Verbiest. Faithful to the inspiration of its patron, the Institute combines scholarly exchange with an active interest in the Church of China. Historical research on the Belgian presence in China has been the red thread through the Institute's research programme since its foundation in 1982. In 2005 Cardinal Danneels made his first China visit as guest of the Chinese government. But he had to cut short his visit due to the demise of Pope John Paul II. Chinese authorities asked when the cardinal would come back to complete his visit. The program for this second visit was discussed in early 2008 and differed significantly from the first. The cardinal would this time come to China not only as leader of the Church of Belgium but also as chairman of the F. Verbiest Foundation which has cooperated with the Church in China for 25 years. The Foundation sponsors projects of academic research and missionary cooperation through the Verbiest Institute at Leuven University. Board members of the Foundation traveled along together with four Belgian bishops; in total a delegation of eleven. It was agreed that the cardinal would give a lecture at the Academy of Social Sciences on “Dialogue between science and ethics”

An aerial view of the Imperial Observatory in Beijing, from the Museum's original set of illustrations detailing the form and construction of its instruments. It was printed from woodblocks in China around 1674 on a total of one hundred and five separate sheets of paper approximately 390 x 460mm in size. The zodiacal armillary from the Beijing observatory - the most complex and impractical of instruments for measurement, originally described in Ptolemy's Almagest and tried but condemned by Tycho and not attempted by Hevelius. Compare with Image 26. Beijing's altazimuth quadrant - an instrument modelled directly on the Tychonic precedent (see Image 27) but with eastern decoration. The bipartite arc from the Imperial Observatory in Beijing, depicted within a typically Chinese scene. Compare with Image 28.

Image 27 A large quadrant from Tycho's observatory as illustrated in his Astronomiæ instauratæ mechanica (Wandesburg, 1598). Compare with Beijing image. Image 26 An equatorial armillary instrument from Tycho's observatory as illustrated in his Astronomiæ instauratæ mechanica (Wandesburg, 1598). Compare with Beijing image. Image 28 The 'arcus bipartitus' from Tycho's observatory as illustrated in his Astronomiæ instauratæ mechanica (Wandesburg, 1598). Compare with the instrument made for the Beijing observatory (Beijing Image)

The steam engine manufactured by Ferdinand Verbiest at the Qing Court in 1672.

The Chinese Jesuit Michael Alphonsius Shen Fu-Tsung visited France and Britain in and was presented to king Louis XIV on September 15, 1684, and also met with king James II. This became the first recorded instance of a Chinese man visiting Britain. King James II was so delighted by this visit that he had this portrait made, and had it hung in his bedroom, & it was titled "The Chinese Convert" by Sir Godfrey Kneller. French Jesuits sent Arcadio Huang to present to Rome examples of perfectly Christianized Chinese, in order to reinforce the Jesuits' position in the Rites controversy. Huang initiated the learning of Chinese language in France and settled permanently in Paris as a "Chinese interpreter to the Sun King”. He is also said to have become the king's librarian in charge of cataloging Chinese books in the Royal library. Huang encountered Montesquieu, with whom he had many discussions about Chinese customs. Huang is said to have been Montesquieu's inspiration for the narrative device in his Persian Letters, in which the narrative is made from the point of view of an Asian who discusses the customs of the West.

Confucius Sinarum Philosophus ("Life and works of Confucius"), by Father Philippe Couplet and Father Prospero Intorcetta, 1687.

The French Jesuit Joseph-Marie Amiot ( ) was official translator of Western languages for Emperor Qianlong and one of the last of the Jesuits in China of the old mission which ended when the Jesuit Order was disbanded for 40 years by the pope and never recovered its position in China.

The Old Summer Palace (Yuan Ming Yuan, or Garden of Perfect Brightness), now sits isolated from the main Summer Palace, but was a collection of princely gardens fused into the main mass by the Qing Qianlong emperor in the mid-18th century. He commissioned Jesuits at his court (Jesuit Giuseppe Castiglione and the French Catholic priest Michael Benoist) to design and construct a set of European-style buildings in one corner, which they likened to Versailles. In 1860, during the Second Opium War, the British and French expeditionary forces looted the Old Summer Palace. The British general Lord Elgin purposely ordered to set fire to the huge complex which burned to the ground. It took 3,500 British troops to set the entire place ablaze and took three whole days to burn.

Old Summer Palace

Ruins of European Garden

A Jesuit Painter at the Imperial Chinese Court:
Giuseppe Castiglione and the Conquests of the Emperor Castiglione arrived in China in 1715 and remained there until his death in 1766, adopting the Chinese name of Shihning. He was buried in European Missionary Graveyard in Fuchengmen in Beijing. As an Italian Jesuit brother, Castiglione was the center of a group of foreign missionary priests and brothers housed at the imperial court as advisers on Western art, technology, and science. Castiglione was able to create a synthesis of Eastern and Western techniques by combining traditional Chinese watercolor techniques with Western methods of perspective and chiaroscuro. This ability made him one of the most valued of the missionary artists serving the dynasty. He painted for three Manchu emperors and his depictions of their hunts and battles provide a valuable visual record of the times. He was particularly known for his paintings of horses. In addition to training Chinese artists in Western techniques, during his 50 years at the Chinese court he collaborated on architectural plans for both buildings and European-style gardens, decorated murals. He painted enameled metalwork, still-life paintings, portraits, as well as creating works in oils on silk and paper. He was the most successful of the European artists in developing a style that pleased the imperial taste with its adaptation of Western conventions of shadings and depiction of volume and space to the courtly subject matter.

Among the most beautiful and distinctive paintings created by the gifted Jesuit artist and architect Giuseppe Castiglione ( ) during his sojourn in China was ‘Kazath Tribute Horses’ (Hasake gongma), which portrays a kowtowing Kazak leading tribute horses to the Qianlong emperor (r ) amid rustic furnishings at the Chengde imperial summer retreat.1 For several generations of students and scholars of Chinese history, this picture represented the essence of China’s foreign relations during the imperial era: woolen-robed nomads offering horses and other pastoral products as ‘tribute’ (gong) to the Chinese court in return for lavish gifts. The image of ‘barbarians’ expressing their recognition of ‘the supreme virtue of the Chinese Son of Heaven’ in kneeling and prostrated postures, or in Chinese terms, performing the koutou consisting of 3 kneels and 9 bows (sangui jiukou), has been enduring. Western language accounts of embassies written by eighteenth century visitors to China such as Lord Macartney, reinforced earlier Jesuit-authored and Dutch VOC representatives’ descriptions of court ritual and ceremony cast in regimental distances and timing. ‘Kazaks presenting horses in tribute’ (cat. 23. Musée Guimet, Paris): Continues next page. Bron: Cécile and Michel Beurdeley, Giuseppe Castiglione, A Jesuit painter at the court of the Chinese Emperors (London: Lund Humphries 1971)

On the 26th day of the fifth moon of the thirtieth year of his empire - 3 July 1765 to be precise - Ch'ien-lung promulgated a decree translated at the time as follows: 'I wish the sixteen prints of the victories that I won in the conquest of the kingdom of Chumgar and the neighbouring Mahommedan countries, which I had painted by Lamxinim and the other European painter who are in my service in the city of Peking, to be sent to Europe where the best artists in copper shall be chosen so that they may render each of these prints perfectly in all its parts on plates of copper.’ Thus engraving, another great expression of European art, interested the Emperor no less than painting. He had seen engravings of battles executed after the originals of the German painter Rugendas ( ) and this had given him the idea of immortalizing his recent victories in Upper Asia. The final conquest was followed, in April 1760, by a grandiose ceremony in the course of which Generals Chao-hui and Fu-te, victors in this campaign, were heaped with honours. Ch'ien-lung instructed the Court painters, and especially the Jesuit missionaries, to paint their portraits at the same time as a series of battle scenes destined to decorate the central hall of the Tzu-kuang-ko on the east bank of the central lake in Peking. It was in this hall, installed in 1760, that Emperor Ch'ien-lung used to receive tributary princes and European ambassadors.Amiot, in his biography of Father Attiret, states that 'during the whole time that this war lasted, as soon as the troops of the Empire had won a few victories, the order was immediately given to the painters to depict them. According to the scholar Paul Pelliot the drawings to be engraved from, sixteen in number, reproduced on a reduced scale the mural paintings in the palace. The latter had been executed by Giuseppe Castiglione, Jean-Denis Attiret, Ignatius Sickelpart and a barefoot Augustinian, Father Jean Damasckne, who in 1788 became Bishop of Peking.

But once the decree had been promulgated conflicts of influence divided England and France, each country wishing to attract attention to its own merits. As the final decision rested with the viceroy of Canton, the superior of the French Jesuits of Canton, Father Le Febvre, sent one of his mandarin friends to see him. This mandarin, 'a declared protector of the French, succeeded in convincing the viceroy that the arts were more cultivated in France than in any other country in Europe and that engraving especially was carried there to the highest point of perfection'. * The importance of this order was not solely of an artistic nature. It was thought that it would also direct China's interest to France and enable precious advantages from both the commercial and the religious point of view to be obtained. The Dutch, the Portuguese and above all the English constituted rivals from whom it was good, on any occasion whatever, to distinguish oneself. Charles-Nicolas Cochin, of the Acadkmie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, was immediately charged with getting the work started. Everything was done to ensure complete success. France's prestige was at stake. The Emperor had been so satisfied with the engravings executed in France that he had fresh prints made from the plates in China, by Chinese disciples of Castiglione. Apart from the copies for the royal family and the King's library, Henri-Leonard Bertin, deputy of the department of the Compagnie des Indes and a great collector who never lost sight of his interests, did not fail to reserve a complete set for his private collection. One set in a wooden coffer decorated with a five-clawed Imperial dragon, and another bound with the arms of France, are in the Bibliothique Nationale, a third is in the Bibliothique Alazarine, a fourth in the Musee Guimet and a fifth incomplete set of fifteen prints is in the possession of the Musee de Fontainebleau. Finally, Louis XVI presented a set to his Minister Necker, which is preserved in the chateau de Coppet, Switzerland.

Rise of Modern Science: 17th Cen-tury Inaugurates Modern World
Descartes: one of the creators of 17th century science Copernicus (16th century), Galileo, Kepler & Newton were the immediate creators Copernicus Polish ecclesiastic who taught mathematics in Rome for a few years, then returned to be canon of a church in Poland where he combated the Germans and reformed the currency

Rise of Modern Science: 17th Cen-tury Inaugurates Modern World(cont.d)
Copernicus (cont.d) wrote De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium which put forward the heliocentric explanation as a hypothesis escaped official Catholic condemnation until the time of Galileo a century later when the Church had become less liberal under the Jesuits and the renewed Inquisition was ancient Greek in spirit for being Pythagorean and aesthetic: assumes all celestial motions must be circular and uniform included epicycles although orbital centers are near the sun marred its own simplicity for not having the sun exactly in the center indicated awareness of Pythagorean doctrines but not of Aristarchus’ heliocentric theory

Copernicus’ Heliocentric Solar System vs. Ptolemy's Geocentric Model
Both models employed perfect circular motion with epicycles, equants ... The Copernican model The Ptolemiac model

Copernicus (cont.d) wrote De Revolutionibus Orbium Coel. which (cont.d) by dethroning the earth from its geometrical pre-eminence, robbed man of the cosmic importance assigned to him in Christian theology according to Copernicus’ sincere professed orthodoxy, did not contradict the Bible. suffered from two immediate weaknesses: non-observation of stellar parallax until the 19th century when observed only in the case of a few of the nearest stars Until Galileo’s law of inertia a century later, the Aristotelian static concept of existence allowed for the earth’s rotation from west to east only if a body dropped from a height falls to a point slightly to the west of a point vertically below the body’s starting point no one was compelled by any known facts to adopt was not outright refuted by any known facts and therefore still a plausible hypothesis as Copernicus called it Horizontally stationary Earth’s surface rotating

Copernicus (cont.d) possessed the two merits found together in the founders of modern science and only in Aristarchus before that: immense patience in observation This had belonged to the later astronomers of antiquity Copernicus knew all that could be known with the instruments existing in his day great boldness in framing hypotheses had belonged to the earliest Greek philosophers Copernicus perceived that diurnal rotation of the earth was a more economical hypothesis than revolution of all the celestial spheres So was the earth’s annual revolution, but to less a degree Simplicity is the only gain from Copernicus’ hypothesis in the modern context of relativity of motion

Copernicus (cont.d) had the two great merits of recognizing that: what had been believed since ancient times might be false test of scientific truth is patient collection of facts, combined with bold guessing as to laws binding the facts together was rejected by Protestant clergy in Luther’s dismissal of Copernicus as an “upstart astrologer” in Calvin’s affirmation that the world is stabilized and so cannot be moved Copernicus’ authority cannot be placed above the Holy Ghost’s who had less power than Catholic clergy because the key benefit of protestantism was not heresy, but schism which led to national churches not strong enough to control the lay government and, thus more liberty of speculation in Protestant than in Catholic countries.

Tycho Brahe provided two possible compromise/hybrid theories between Copernicus (heliocentrism) and Ptolemy (geocentrism): sun and moon go around the earth, but the other planets go around the sun, or sun, moon, Mars, Saturn and Jupiter go around the earth, and Mercury and Venus go around the sun had 2 reasons for rejecting pure geocentrism: appearance of a new star far enough away to have no daily parallax, in the face of Aristotle’s view that everything above the moon is unchanging, and change and decay are confined to the sublunary sphere

Tycho Brahe (cont.d) had 2 reasons for rejecting pure geocentrism: (cont.d) observation of comets also found to be distant, in the face of Aristotle’s view confining change to the sublunary sphere was an observer, not a theorist, under the patronage first of the King of Denmark, and afterward of the Holy Roman Emperor made a star catalog and noted the positions of the planets throughout many years perfected observation instruments, but used no telescope was the first to correctly estimate the relative distances of the moon and the sun from the earth employed as his assistant Kepler to whom Tycho’s observations proved invaluable

Tycho Brache’s two hybrid geoheliocentric solar-system models
Pure helioocentric model of the solar system Pure geocentric model of the solar system Tycho was doubtful of a pure geocentric model and attempted to formulate two compromise geocentric models shown below + : earth o : sun c : moon

Tycho Brache estimates of relative distances to sun and moon
He showed that the Sun was much farther than the Moon from the Earth, using simple trigonometry of the angle between the Moon and the Sun at 1st Quarter.

Kepler was an example of what is achievable by patience without much in the way of genius was influenced by Pythagoreanism which inclined him to follow Plato’s Timeus in attaching cosmic significance to the five regular solids which he used to suggest hypotheses was a good Protestant was inclined to sun worship which inclined him to the heliocentric hypothesis

Kepler (cont.d) discovered his three laws of planetary motion: 1. The planets describe eliptic orbits of which the sun occupies one of the 2 foci. At first provable only in the case of Mars Violated the aesthetic bias for circular celestial motion that governed astronomy since Pythagoras: since heavenly bodies moved freely, without being pushed or pulled, their motion was sup-posed to be “natural” and there was nothing natural about an ellipse. 2. The line joining a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times of orbit. In other words, at successive positions of a planet at equal intervals of time, then the areas traced by the radius from the sun over those intervals must be equal. The planet therefore moves fastest when it is nearest to the sun and slowest when it is farthest from the sun. Hurrying at one time and dawdling at another had been supposed unbecoming of a stately planet. At first provable only in the case of Mars.

Kepler discovered his three laws of planetary motion: (cont.d) 3. The square of the period of revolution of a planet is proportional to the cube of its average distance from the sun. This law is important for comparing the movement of two different planets. turned out to be an application of Newton’s law of the inverse square for gravitation found that as observation grew more exact No system of epicycles exactly fit the facts Kepler’s hypothesis was far more closely in accord with the recorded positions of Mars than was Ptolemy’s sent books and documents to Matteo Ricci in Beijing

Kepler’s 3 Laws of Planetary Motion
1st law: Planets move on ellipses of which the Sun is at one of the foci 2nd law: [Time(D-C) = Time(B-A)] [Area(CSD) = Area(ASB)] 3rd law: , where p is any planet; r is the planet’s average distance to the sun; T is the length of the planet’s year; c is a constant

c a + b = c c : major axis : semimajor axis b a
For 2 applets animating a system of 2 bodies’ in eliptical motion around foci go to:

Galileo was the greatest of the founders of modern science after Newton was the founder of the physics of dynamics which in the spirit of Heraclitus, assumes the Law of Inertia: everything is already, naturally in unchanging unidirectional motion, not stationary. Heavenly bodies had been assumed to be ever moving naturally in circles, viewed to be the only natural direction of perpetual motion. Terrestrial bodies were assumed to gradually cease to move (assumed to assume a static position) if left by themselves Since everything on earth is rotating with the earth at the same speed, Copernicus’ problem is solved: the falling body is not horizontally static while the rest of the earth is moving horizontally. Accordingly it falls to the point vertically below the body’s starting point, not to the west of it. Actually it should fall to the east of it because, at a higher elevation, the body’s horizontal speed is slightly faster than what is at ground level, but the effect is too slight to be measurable. Horizontally stationary Earth’s surface rotating Horizontally moving faster than earth’s surface

Galileo (cont.d) was the founder of the physics of dynamics which(cont.d) regards unidirectional unchanging motion as “first order”, “first derivative”, “velocity”, “change-in-distance divided by change-in-time” regards apparent motion as “second order”, “second derivative”, “acceleration”, “deceleration”, “turning rate”, “change-in-(velocity &/or direction) divided by change-in-time” “force” is defined as (cause of) “change-in-(velocity &/or direction) of motion, divided by change-in-time”. This also became Newton’s First Law of Motion. was first to establish the Law of Falling Bodies: “The acceleration of (= force on) a free-falling body is constant regardless of weight, except for any resistance by air.” Was not completely proved until the air-pump was invented (12 years after Galileo’s death) to create a vacuum.

Motion S : distance T : Time c : a constant Instantaneous Velocity
acceleration

Galileo (cont.d) studied projectiles for his Medici patron and discovered that: rather than move ever more slowly horizontally and then drop suddenly, a projectile fired horizontally would (apart from air resistance) move at constant horizontal velocity and at the same time a vertical velocity increasing at a constant rate according to the law of falling bodies the path of motion of such a projectile is a parabola multiple forces combine according to the Parallelogram Law: A B C D

Galileo (cont.d) made a telescope after hearing that a Dutchman had invented it (18 years after the microscope), and was the first to use it for scientific purposes, to discover the Milky Way consists of a multitude of separate stars observe the phases of Venus that Copernicus knew were implied by his theory and that refuted Ptolemy’s discover the 4 satellites of Jupiter that Galileo found obey Kepler’s laws changed the number of heavenly bodies from the magical number of 7 to 11 which has no mystical properties and this caused traditionalists to denounce the telescope and refuse to look through it, and caused professors of philosophy to try to conjure away Jupiter’s moons, using “logic-chopping arguments as though they were magical incantations”

Galileo (cont.d) invented the thermometer, his student invented the barometer, and Galileo greatly improved clocks was condemned by the Inquisition first privately, then publicly when he recanted and promised never again to maintain that the earth rotates or revolves, and that put an end to science in Italy, and he was rehabilitated only in 2000, in a formal apology by Pope John Paul II.

Newton flourished because the protestant clergy who would do harm to science were unable to gain control of the State established 3 laws of motion, the first 2 of which are due to Galileo proved that Kepler’s 3 laws are equivalent to a law stating that every planet at every moment has an acceleration toward the sun that varies inversely with the square of the distance from the sun. Accordingly, acceleration towards the earth and the sun explains the moon’s motion acceleration of falling bodies on the earth’s surface is governed by the same inverse-square law that governs the moon’s motion.

Newton (cont.d) adopted Galileo’s definition of “force” as (the cause of) change of motion (i.e. acceleration). enunciated his Law of Universal Gravitation: “Every body attracts every other with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them” used his Law of Universal Gravitation to deduce everything in planetary theory eventually became another Aristotle, imposing an insuperable barrier to progress until (1825) a century after his death when men freed themselves of his authority sufficiently to do important original work.

Newton (cont.d) Three laws of motion First law. (Galileo’s) Law of Inertia: a body’s velocity is con-stant unless an external force (“momentum”) acts on it. Second law. Momentum is defined as ma, where m is mass, a is acceleration, contrary to Aristotle’s static universe where “force” F = df mv consistent with Galileo’s Law of Falling Bodies, where a is constant Third law. Conservation of momentum: Every action produces an equal and opposite reaction, i.e. m1a1 = -m2a2 The total momentum of the universe is conserved: interactions just redistribute it.

Newton (cont.d) Law of Universal Gravitation Special case of Galileo’s Falling Body: F : gravitation G : gravitation constant m1 : mass of body 1 m2 : mass of body 2 R : distance between bodies 1 & 2 W : weight ~ momentum G : gravitation constant ME : mass of Earth m : mass of falling body R : radius of earth a : acceleration a = : constant

Newton (cont.d) Newton’s generalization of Kepler’s Third Law to any 2-body system. iff at center of mass of the system & where m1 : mass of body 1 m2 : mass of body 2 P : period of one revolution R : average distance between bodies 1 & 2 c : a constant d1 : distance from body 1 to center of mass of the system d2 : distance from body 2 to center of mass of the system :

Newton (cont.d) Newton’s generalization of Kepler’s Third Law to any 2-body system. (cont.d) If m1 = m2 , then d1 = d2 with rotation around a common equidistant center of mass, as in a binary star, a pulsar For 2 applets animating a system of 2 bodies’ in eliptical motion around foci go to:

Orbits for Binary Systems
In reality, binary star systems are governed by Kepler's laws, as modified by Newton to account for the effect of the center of mass. Then each star executes an elliptical orbit such that at any instant the two stars are on opposite sides of the center of mass. The orbits generally are as depicted in the following figure.

Newton (cont.d) Reduction back to of Newton’s generalization of Kepler’s Third Law . If m1 is the sun (very big) such that m1 >> m2 m1 >> m3 , then and so Kepler’s Third Law

Newton (cont.d) Reduction back to of Newton’s generalization of Kepler’s Third Law . (cont.d) If m1 is the sun (very big) such that m1 >> m2 m1 >> m3 (cont.d) Then , , and so Since Then the sun is almost motionless at the center at the center of mass of a 2-body system =1 =0 Kepler’s Third Law at center of mass of the system

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law in Andrew T Hyman “A simple Cartesian treatment of planetary motion” European Journal of Physics 14 (1990) , posted at “The task of demonstrating the relationship between the laws of Kepler and Newton was 'the major scientific problem of the [seventeenth] century' (Cohen, I Physics, ed P Tipler, New York Worth).” The following detailed mathematical demonstration is only mentioned, but not shown, in Hyman’s accordingly short paper.

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) e is eccentricity 0 = e a circle 0 < e < an ellipse e = a parabola 1 < e a hyperbola R R/e The Sun is at the origin and the planet’s directrix is a straight line perpendicular to the x-axis at a distance D/e from the Sun. [D is the planet’s distance from the sun when the planet crosses the y-axis] and is called the ‘semi-latus-rectum’ of the conic section

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) = (1) Kepler’s First Law of Motion: elliptical motion _ (2) Kepler’s Second Law of Motion: fixed proportionality of angular area to time-elapse = rectangular area under ellipse = area of last triangle to subtract to get angular area under ellipse

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) C2/D = K = vertical distance, R = Y, to focus = constant (3) Kepler’s Third Law of Motion: fixed proportion of square of revolution period t to cube of average distance R = a to focus for all orbits around that focus. Derivation of (3) from characteristics a, b, C, D of ellipse: Derivations used of a & b in terms of D & e :

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) Derivation of a in terms of D & e , used in derivation of (3): x1 x2 y semi-major axis average dis-tance of ellipse from 2 alternative derivations of b in terms of D & e , used in derivation of (3):

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) 1st of 2 alternative derivations of b in terms of D & e , used in derivation of (3): x b R a a=R semi-minor axis b :

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) 2nd of 2 alternative derivations of b in terms of D & e , used in derivation of (3): semi-minor axis: x b R a a=R

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) Derivation of Newton’s law of planetary acceleration/gravitation : Differentiation of Kepler’s First Law (1): (1) = (4) Differentiation of Kepler’s Second Law (2): _ (2) (5)

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) Derivation of Newton’s law of planetary acceleration/gravitation (cont.d): from (4): from (5): substituting these in (5): (6)

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) Derivation of Newton’s law of planetary acceleration/gravitation (cont.d): from (4): from (5): substituting these in (5): (7)

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) Derivation of Newton’s law of planetary acceleration/gravitation (cont.d): Calculating partial acceleration ( ) by 2 equations in 2 unknowns: Differentiating (5) [which was derived from Kepler’s 2nd law]: (8) Intermediate derivation: (9) Differentiating (6) [which was derived from Kepler’s 1st & 2nd laws] & applying (9) & Kepler’s 3rd law: (10)

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) Derivation of Newton’s law of planetary acceleration/gravitation (cont.d): Calculating partial acceleration ( ) by 2 equations in 2 unknowns: By (8) & (10): (11) Calculating total acceleration by (10) & (11): y x (12) Proportional to solar mass m1, & planetary mass m2 very small

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) Derivation of Kepler’s laws (1), (2), (3) as special cases of Newton’s law of gravitation (12). Proving : Proving : (12) decomposes into (11) & (10): (3) used in derivation of (10): Proving : (12) decomposes into (11) & (10): (8) used in derivation of (11): (8) is derivative of (5) : (5) is derivative of (2) :

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) Derivation of Kepler’s laws (1), (2), (3) as special cases of Newton’s law of gravitation (12). Proving (cont.): Proving : Solving for : Substitute (5) for in (9): (13) Substitute (10) for R3 in (13), then integrate: (14)

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) Derivation of Kepler’s laws (1), (2), (3) as special cases of Newton’s law of gravitation (12). Proving (cont.): Proving (cont.d): Solving for : Interchange x & y in (9) and substitute (5) into (9) to get: (15) Substitute (11) for R3 in (15), then integrate: (16)

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) Derivation of Kepler’s laws (1), (2), (3) as special cases of Newton’s law of gravitation (12). Proving (cont.): Proving (cont.d): Plug (14) & (16) into (5) to get (1): (14’); (16’) Substitute (14’) & (16’) into (5): (17) (17) is a conic section of eccentricity with directrix

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) Derivation of Kepler’s laws (1), (2), (3) as special cases of Newton’s law of gravitation (12). Proving (cont.): Proving (cont.d): Plug (14) & (16) into (5) to get (1) (cont.d): (1) as a special case of (17): (3) (17’) [(17’) & A=0] (1) directrix: distance from origin/focus to directrix:

Newton (cont.d) Proof that Kepler’s laws are a special case of Newton’s Gravitation law … (cont.d) Derivation of Kepler’s laws (1), (2), (3) as special cases of Newton’s law of gravitation (12). Proving (cont.): Proof of logical transitivity rule used in proving :

Other developments Gilbert’s great book on the magnet Harvey’s discovery of circulation of the blood Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of spermatoza and protozoa (unicellular organisms), and even bacteria Boyle’s Law that in a given quantity of gas at a given temperature, pressure is inversely proportional to volume. Napier’s invention of logarithms Development of coordinate geometry, mainly by Descartes Invention of the differential and integral calculus by Newton and Leibniz independently of each other, the instrument for almost all higher mathematics

Other developments (cont.d) Complete transformation in the outlook of educated men away from witchcraft trials and viewing comets as portents After publication of Newton’s Principia, it was known that he and Haley had calculated the orbits of certain comets which behaved as obediently as planets to the law of gravitation The reign of law had established its hold on men’s imaginations and made such things as magic and sorcery incredible

Philosophical results Removal of animism from physics Greek animism For ancient Greeks the power of movement was a sign of life Common sense observation suggested that animals move themselves while dead matter moves only when impelled by an external force One of the soul’s functions according to Aristotle was to move the animal’s body Ancient Greeks regarded the sun and planets as either gods or regulated and moved by gods. Only Anaxagoras, Democritus and the Epicurians thought otherwise Aristotle’s 47 or 55 unmoved movers were divine spirits, the ultimate source of all the motion in the heavens. Left to itself any inanimate body would soon become motionless; otherwise soul needed to operate on matter

Philosophical results (cont.d) Removal of animism from physics (cont.d) The First Law of Motion changed this Lifeless matter will continue moving forever unless stopped by some external cause External causes of change in motion are themselves material The solar system keeps going by its own laws, no outside interference needed Even if the world had a beginning in time when God originally set the universe working and decreed the law of gravitation, everything went on by itself without further need of divine intervention

Philosophical results (cont.d) Removal of purpose from science and the universe, and of man as that purpose In the Medieval world the earth was the center of the heavens everything had a purpose concerned with man since Aristotle, purpose formed an intimate part of the conception of science In the Newtonian world the earth was a minor part of a not specially distinguished star, and purpose was thrust out of scientific procedure, and could no longer enter into scientific explanations.

Philosophical results (cont.d) Revival of human pride In the ancient world, where mankind had been obsessed with a sense of sin humility before God was both right and prudent, for God would punish pride calamities and comets plagued the gloomy centuries and it was felt that only greater and greater humility would avert these real or threatened events

Philosophical results (cont.d) Revival of human pride (cont.d) in the 17th century, where it became impossible to remain humble when men were achieving scientific and technical triumphs “Nature and Nature’s laws lay hid at night. God said ‘Let Newton be’, and all was light.” the Tartars had been confined to Asia and the Turks stopped being a menace. comets had been humbled by Haley Western Europeans controlled the Americas, were powerful in India and Africa, respected in China, and feared in Japan men felt themselves to be fine fellows, not the miserable sinners they proclaimed themselves to be on Sundays

Philosophical results (cont.d) Departure of modern theoretical physics from the Newtonian system The concept of “force”, prominent in the 17th century, is superfluous. It is the (cause of) change in motion in the Galilean and Newtonian worlds. Force is conceived imaginatively as what we experience when we push or pull. So, an objection to gravitation was that it was a “force” acting at a distance needing what Newton thought was some medium by which it was transmitted. The equations themselves do not need force, which is a mere “physical” interpretation of an observable relation between acceleration and relative position. To “interpret” that relation as due to the intermediacy of force adds nothing to our knowledge Observation shows that planets have at all times an acceleration towards the sun which varies inversely to the square of their distance from it. The modern physicist states formulae that determine accelerations without need of the concept of force which is the faint ghost of the vitalist view.

Philosophical results (cont.d) Departure of modern theoretical physics from the Newtonian system (cont.d) The concept of “force”, prominent in the 17th century, is superfluous. It is the (cause of) change in motion in the Galilean and Newtonian worlds. Force is conceived imaginatively as what we experience when we push or pull. (cont.d) Until the coming of quantum mechanics prompted some modifications, the purport of Newton’s first two laws has been to state the laws of dynamics in terms of accelerations. When the law of gravitation was amended by Einstein, it remained a law dealing with accelerations. While the Conservation of Energy is a law dealing with velocities, it is still accelerations that have to be used in calculations using it.

Philosophical results (cont.d) Departure of modern theoretical physics from the Newtonian system (cont.d) Abandonment of absolute space and time. Newton believed in space composed of points, and time composed of instants, existing independently of the bodies occupying them. If all motion is relative, the difference between the hypothesis that the earth rotates and the hypothesis that the earth revolves is purely verbal. But the question of absolute rotation still presents difficulties. If the heavens revolve, then the stars move faster than light, and that is considered impossible and therefore a reason for rejecting the hypothesis. Most physicists accept the view that motion and space are purely relative.

Foucault’s pendulum demonstration of the earth’s rotation
Foucault's pendulum was the first dynamic proof of the earth’s rotation in an easy-to-see experiment, and it created a sensation in both the learned and everyday worlds. Animation of a Foucault pendulum, with the rotation rate greatly exaggerated. The green trace shows the path of the pendulum bob over the ground, and the blue trace shows the path in a frame of reference rotating with the plane of the pendulum. Animation of a Foucault pendulum, with the rotation rate greatly exaggerated. The green trace shows the path of the pendulum bob over the ground, and the blue trace shows the path in a frame of reference rotating with the plane of the pendulum. At either the North Pole or South Pole, the plane of oscillation of a pendulum remains fixed with respect to the fixed stars while Earth rotates underneath it, taking one sidereal day to complete a rotation. So relative to Earth, the plane of oscillation of a pendulum at the North or South Pole undergoes a full clockwise or counterclockwise rotation during one day, respectively. When a Foucault pendulum is suspended on the equator, the plane of oscillation remains fixed relative to Earth. At other latitudes, the plane of oscillation precesses relative to Earth, but slower than at the pole Foucault’s pendulum demonstration of the earth’s rotation Change of direction of the plane of swing of the pendulum in angle per sidereal day as a function of latitude. The pendulum rotates in the anticlockwise (positive) direction on the southern hemisphere and in the clockwise (negative) direction on the northern hemisphere. The only points where the pendulum returns to its original orientation after one day are the poles and the equator. Animation of a Foucault pendulum showing the direction of rotation on the southern hemisphere. The rate of rotation is greatly exaggerated. A real Foucault pendulum, released from rest, does not pass directly over its equilibrium position as the one in the animation does. A Foucault pendulum at the north pole. The pendulum swings in the same plane as the Earth rotates beneath it.

Jesuits’ Grand Scientific Compromise in Beijing
Out of concern for orthodoxy both at the Vatican and in Beijing, Jesuits hid the heliocentric hypothesis of the solar system from their translations of and commentaries on European astronomy, and just provided means and techniques for more accurate observations and calculations for calendars and forecasts, and ultimately divulged the heliocentric hypothesis as a mere heuristic device to arrive at accurate calculations but at the cost of making European astronomy appear inconsistent with itself. When the Jesuits first arrived in the late 1500’s, their cosmological basis was the Ptolemaic system as taught at the Collegio Romano, but when they were commissioned to reform the Chinese calendar in 1629 they replaced it with the Tychonic system. Tycho Brahe’s exceptionally accurate data represented a major achievement in astronomical science, and on the basis of his observations Kepler determined the laws of planetary motion and from these laws Newton derived the law of gravity. The Jesuit introduction of European astronomical mathematics, calculating instruments, and plane and spherical geometry was highly applicable to the adaptable nature of Chinese astronomy, and was enhanced by accurate Chinese observations of stellar phenomena, novae, comets, and so on, dating back more than a millennium. The pace with which these importations were accepted was due not only to their immediate and apparent usefulness, but also to the existence of common astronomical techniques based on a “kernel” of common conceptions of space and time, understood by both Chinese and Europeans. Science historian Jean-Claude Martzloff lists four mutually acceptable propositions for Sino-Jesuit scientific exchange: Space and time were both deemed quantifiable on the basis of measurement and cataloging of celestial positions. Eclipses of the sun and moon, ephemeredes of the sun, moon, and planets, solstices and equinoxes, and other celestial phenomena, were considered mathematically predictable from computational techniques, using ready-made computations (tables) and particular algorithmic prescriptions free from the hold of astrology. Criterion of validation of predictions hinged on the agreement between the result of predictive computations and observation. The perfectibility of predictive systems, i.e. the possibility of reducing the margin of error between theoretical predictions and real observations, was generally granted by the most influential astronomers.

Jesuits’ Grand Scientific Compromise in Beijing (cont.d)
Here are just a few of the many astronomical treatises and tables that were produced by the Jesuits. The Tianwen lue 天文略 (Epitome of Questions on the Heavens, 1615) by Manuel Dias, which describe Galileo’s invention of the telescope and the observations he reported; the Yuanjing shuo 远镜说 (Explanation of the Telescope, 1626) by Adam Schall, containing the first account of the Tychonic world system, and the Cetian yueshuo 测天约说 (Brief Explanation of the Measurement of the Heavens, 1628), which further discussed the system; Giacomo Rho’s Celiang quanyi 测量全义 (Full Meaning of Mensuration, 1631), devoted to Tycho’s astronomical instruments; celestial atlases such as the Chidao nanbei liang zongxing tu 赤道南北两总星图 (General Star Map of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres Divided by the Equator, 1634); Jean-Francois Foucquet’s Lifa wenda 历法问答 (Dialogue on Astronomy, ), introduced Copernican theory and elliptical orbits after 1757 when this was allowed by the Church. The reliance on foreign scientists to run the Bureau of Astronomy at the Imperial Board of Rites, let alone ones who preached a heterodox sect, garnered bitter opposition. In 1657 Wu Mingxuan 吴明 (who had headed the abolished Islamic section of the Bureau of Astronomy accused the Bureau’s director, Johann Adam Schall von Bell, of faulty predictions. This accusation was dismissed, but in 1664 the anti-Christian, anti-Jesuit minister and businessman, Yang Guangxian 杨光先 re-instated Wu’s accusation of Schall to the Board of Rites, specifically that Schall had deliberately chosen an inauspicious date for the funeral of a Manchu prince, and succeeded in bringing the case to trial. Yang was no astronomer, and attacked Schall, his assistants, and Western methods in general as contrary to the Confucian orthodoxy, an attack reminiscent of those against Galileo and heliocentrism in (And as in Galileo’s case, little heed was paid to the fact that the new system worked correctly). The upshot of the trial was that Schall and several Chinese assistants were ordered to be executed by the Board of Punishments, and Verbiest, Buglio, and Magalhaes sent into exile. Fate intervened when on the morning of their execution the very next day, a huge earthquake struck north China, an event interpreted as a sign that the sentence was unjust. Schall and the Jesuits were pardoned, and their methods officially confirmed. Tragically, the Jesuits’ Chinese assistants were executed nonetheless. The incident is an illustration of the precarious position of anyone serving at court. (

From Nathan Sivin (Prof. Emeritus of Chinese Culture and History of Science, Univ. of Pennsylvania), Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections. Brookfield (Vermont) & Aldershot (UK): Variorum, Ashgate Publishing, 1995, chapter 4 ( ”Historians generally claim that Chinese rejected the early fruits of modern science because of some intellectual or linguistic failing, or a metaphysical indisposition. To the contrary, those best prepared to judge were quite receptive. What matters more, certain key issues were so garbled in the process of transmission that no Chinese could have comprehended them. Jesuit missionaries, who alone were in a position to introduce contemporary scientific ideas into China before the nineteenth century, were not permitted to discuss the concept of a sun-centered planetary system after Because they wanted to honor Copernicus they characterized his world system in misleading ways. When a Jesuit was free to correctly describe it in 1760, Chinese scientists rejected the heliocentric system because it contradicted earlier statements about Copernicus. No European writer resolved their doubts by admitting that some of the earlier assertions distorting Copernicus had been untrue. The Jesuits were also unable to discuss the wider repercussions of the Scientific Revolution, in particular Galileo's central idea that the only firm basis for knowledge of nature was the work of scientists themselves. The Church's injunction of 1616 against the teaching of heliocentricism was meant to reject this notion. To the very end of the Jesuit scientific effort in China, the rivalry between cosmologies was represented as between one astronomical innovator and another for the most convenient and accurate methods of calculation, rather than between the Scholastic philosopher and the mathematical and experimental scientist for the most fruitful approach to physical reality. The character of early modern science was concealed from Chinese scientists, who depended on the Jesuit writings. Many Chinese scientists were brilliant by any standard. As is easily seen from their responses to the European science they knew, they would have been quite capable of comprehending modern science if their introduction to it had not been both contradictory and trivial.

For most Chinese readers of the Jesuit astronomical treatises before the mid-eighteenth century, Copernicus' historical position was clear. He was a vague but estimable figure of the Middle Ages whose work had been made obsolete by Tycho Brahe. This consensus appears, for instance, in the Queries on Mathematical Astronomy (Li hsueh i wen, 1693) of Mei Wen-ting ( ), the most influential writer of his time on the subject. While arguing that Western astronomy was as much a result of historical development as the Chinese art was, Mei noted: "With the coming of Copernicus, there were some revisions to Ptolemy's methods. With the coming of Tycho there was a great transformation of Copernicus' methods. The methods were now on the whole complete, but the making of the telescope happened still later, and led through the accumulation of observations to enhanced precision. The heliostatic world model finally received a hearing in China from Michel Benoist ( ), a very competent astronomer. … Benoist was able to write on Copernican cosmology because the Church's formal ban on discussion of heliocentricism ended in [Newtonian physics had to wait for yet one more century before being introduced to China by protestant missionaries.] ... [But this only made the clergy even less welcome after the poorly-prepared papal legate’s conduct during “the Rites Controversy” in 1706 and 1707 of asking] the Emperor to stop siding with the Jesuits and making all too obvious [two things that ] had been decently concealed through the seventeenth century: [(a) that Confucianism and its rituals are incompatible with Christianity ( and (b)] unlike the priests of other religions in China, the missionaries were obedient agents of a foreign power whose royal patrons could wield them to subvert imperial authority. [So, in the mean time, …] Benoist built fountains and ornamental waterworks to keep the Emperor amused. …

Benoist did not attempt to prove the superiority of heliostatic cosmology. He simply asserted that it was the only system in current use, its ultimate authority deriving from ‘more precise conformity to calculation.’ The ... arguments ... were not meant to prove the Copernican doctrine, but merely to show that its conflict with common sense and everyday observation is only apparent. Although Benoist was free to maintain that the concept of a solar system was mathematically superior, he did not assert that it was physically true. … The monarch (Ch'ien-lung) greeted Benoist's explication of the earth's motion with these words: ‘In Europe you have your way of explaining the celestial phenomena. As for us, we have ours too, without making the earth rotate.’ [Chinese calendrical astronomy thus remained a collection of computational techniques: the Chinese approach to analysis of irregularities in the celestial motions only asserted ‘what it is appropriate for them to be, and not why they are what they are.] If Ch'ien-lung was as usual smug and unimaginative [stating in his letters that Western methods merely reflected refinement of earlier Chinese technique ( the Chinese members of the Directorate of Astronomy (who for centuries had been mostly careerists rather than expert astronomers) saw Copernicanism merely as a threat to their undemanding sinecures. As Benoist put it in 1767, ‘our Chinese mathematicians do not approve of all these changes. They have often heard of the movement of the earth. The tables that our missionaries have given them, and that they use in their calculations, are founded upon this system. But although they make use of the consequences, they still have not admitted the principle. Perhaps they fear that, this hypothesis once favorably received by the emperor, they might be obliged to adopt it themselves.’ ... Not until the mid-nineteenth century, when Protestant missionaries’ translated modern textbooks and used them to train professional astronomers who had no stake in the old society, did Chinese have an opportunity to accept post-Newtonian cosmology as one of the foundations of science.” As cited at Beijing Ancient Observatory, Li Shanlan 李善兰 ( ) was the first to make Western astronomy widely known in China by publishing in 1859 a Chinese translation, in cooperation with protestant missionary, Alexander Wylie, of Sir John Herschel’s Outlines of Astronomy and by publishing Talking about the Skies in 18 volumes.

Unawareness of Newton weakened China militarily and industrially & was due to the Qing emperors’ rejection of Kepler’s heliocentric “theory” known to the Jesuits. In Brett D. Steele and Tamera Dorland, Eds. The Heirs of Archimedes: Science and the Art of War through the Age of Enlightenment [Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2005] Steele’s concluding essay on … “Military ‘progress’ and Newtonian science in the age of Enlightenment” … essentially [counters] Ken Alder’s 1997 book on the alleged technological shortcomings of the reform ideas of the French artillery theorist, Jean-Baptiste Gribeauval ( ) [Ken Alder, Engineering the Revolution: Arms and Enlightenment in France, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997)] … Steele argues that historians must judge technical applications at the time in terms of eighteenth-century rational mechanics, experimental physics, and military practice … Steele provides an overview of the impact of Newtonian physics on the high-level mathematics of ballistics theory (principally differential and non-linear differential equations) and the ensuing incorporation of these new ideas into the curriculum of military schools, especially on the subject of artillery. Central to this process was the work of Benjamin Robins ( ), a mathematical disciple of Newton, and the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler ( ). Gribeauval’s ideas thus proved very derivative, though nonetheless significant, in advancing the place of Newtonian science and the calculus in formal military education. Steele [claims] that this “intellectualization of artillery technology in terms of the” mechanical philosophy of the Scientific Revolution [resulted in] Western military domination in the modern era [& thereby] resurrects old chestnuts about Oriental backwardness. In their book Practical Matter: Newton's Science in the Service of Industry and Empire, [Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004], Margaret C. Jacob and Larry Stewart examine the profound transformation that began in From the year when Newton published his Principia to the Crystal Palace Exhibition of 1851, science gradually became central to Western thought and economic development. The book aims at a general audience and examines how, despite powerful opposition on the Continent, a Newtonian understanding gained acceptance and practical application. By the mid-eighteenth century the new science had achieved ascendancy, and the race was on to apply Newtonian mechanics to industry and manufacturing. Jacob and Stewart show that there was nothing preordained or inevitable about the centrality awarded to science. "It is easy to forget that science might have been stillborn, or remained the esoteric knowledge of court elites. Instead, for better and for worse, science became a centerpiece of Western culture.“

Chinese Astronomy & Mathematics Characterized by a Philosophical Aversion to 1st Principles
[Chinese astronomers] had a large mass of observational data, yet never used it to deduce mathematical theories about the movement of planets and comets similar to what Kepler, Newton and others did in Europe. Newton's Principia was written a few generations after the introduction of the telescope, which makes it seductively simple to believe that the theory of universal gravity was somehow the logical conclusion of telescopic astronomy. Yet this is not at all the case. What would have happened if the telescope had been invented in China? Would we then have had a Chinese Newton? This is impossible to say for certain, of course, but I doubt it. Chinese culture never placed much emphasis on law, either in human form, as in secular Roman law, natural law or divine law. If the Chinese had invented the telescope, I suspect they would have used it to study comets, craters on the Moon etc., which would clearly have been valuable, no doubt. Any culture that used telescopes would have generated new knowledge with the device, but not necessarily a law of universal gravity. In his excellent book Cosmos, John North points out that in China, where astronomy was intimately connected with government and civil administration, interest in cosmological matters was not markedly scientific in the Western sense of the word and did not develop any great deductive system of a character such as we meet in Aristotle or Ptolemy. Page 136: "The great scholar we know as Confucius (551 BC-478 BC) did nothing to help this situation – if in fact it needed help. Primarily a political reformer who wished to ensure that the human world mirrored the harmony of the natural world, he wrote a chapter on their relation, but it was soon lost, and a number of stories told of him give him a reputation for having no great interest in the heavens as such….The all-pervading Chinese view of nature as animistic, as inhabited by spirits or souls, gave to their astronomy a character not unknown in the West, but at a scholarly level made it markedly less well structured.” He adds on page 139 that "Unlike Platonic and Aristotelian thought, Chinese thought was not overtly philosophical, but rather, it was historical. Joseph Needham, a well-known authority on the history of science in China, has suggested that the reason for this is that Chinese religion had no lawgiver in human guise, so that the Chinese did not naturally think in terms of laws of nature.“ The Imperial bureaucracy was hampered by many obstacles to the free and unfettered pursuit of scientific knowledge, especially due to excessive secrecy and regulation in the study of mathematics and astronomy. By making this study a state secret, Chinese authorities drastically reduced the number of scholars who could, legitimately or otherwise, study astronomy. This restriction greatly reduced the availability of the best and latest astronomical instruments and observational data. The Rise of Early Modern Science, second edition, by Toby E. Huff, page 313: "The fact remains that virtually every move made by the astronomical staff had to be approved by the emperor before anything could be done, before modifications in instrumentation or traditional recoding procedures could be put into effect. It is not surprising, therefore, that despite the existence of a bureau of astronomers staffed by superior Muslim astronomers (since 1368), Arab astronomy (based as it was on Euclid and Ptolemy) had no major impact on Chinese astronomy, so that three hundred years later when the Jesuits arrived in China, it appeared that Chinese astronomy had never had any contact with Euclid's geometry and Ptolemy's Almagest.

Francis Bacon was precursor of British experimentalism
was founder of modern inductive method was logical systematizer of scientific procedure was son of Lord Keeper of the Great Seal entered Parliament at age 25 was advisor to king’s Prime Minister until the Prime Minister fell so far out of favor that continued loyalty would have been treasonable was never completely in the favor of Queen Elizabeth I under King James acquired his father’s office of Keeper of the Great Seal

Francis Bacon (cont.d) was Lord Chancellor for 2 years until tried for accepting bribes from litigants Every judge accepted payments often from both sides enabling the judge to show virtue by not being influenced by them He pleaded it never influenced his decisions He was banished from public life, spending the rest of his days writing important books was morally an average man died of a chill caught while experimenting on refrigeration by stuffing a chicken full of snow

Francis Bacon (cont.d) wrote The Advancement of Learning which
popularized the saying “Knowledge is power” proposed to give mastery over nature by means of scientific discoveries and inventions urged keeping philosophy separated from theology, while saying philosophy should depend only on reason accepting orthodox religion, and believing religion could prove the existence of God, but the rest of theology is known only by revelation, and indeed faith triumphs greatest when the dogma appears most absurd to the unaided reason, and accepting the Averroist doctrine of “double truth”, of reason on the one hand and of revelation on the other,condemned by the Church because the triumph of the faith (over reasoned doctrine, for example) was a dangerous device to the orthodox

Francis Bacon (cont.d) wrote The Advancement of Learning which (cont.d) offered a better method of induction than induction by simple enumeration: Characteristics experimentally coextensive with a given characteristic serve to (lawfully) define it. Confirmation as extension is widened, or other qualities get included, into general laws. This is classificationist, taxonomical, non-mathematical, non-mechanistic. An observation decisive between two theories is a “prerogative” (falsifying) instance But on balance the method is confirmationist, constructionist, for seeking ever greater scope and uncritical data-inclusion, and not refutationist for especially seeking/valuing the rare, critical, singular piece of data that disproves, deconstructs a general hypothesis

Francis Bacon (cont.d) wrote The Advancement of Learning which (cont.d) despised the (too narrow/rigid) syllogism for being deduction and undervalued mathematics for presumably involving no experimental “observation”, and was therefore hostile to Aristotle, but for deductivism and teleology, but not for taxonomism and therefore embraced Democritus for atomism and multiplicity rejected teleology in favor of explanation exclusively from efficient (immediate) causes interested in the arranging the observational data on which science is supposed to be based, in the manner neither of spiders who spin (generate) nor of ants who merely accumulate but of bees who arrange

Francis Bacon (cont.d) wrote The Advancement of Learning which (cont.d) proposed four “Idols”, or bad habits of the mind, possibly modeled after Roger Bacon’s 4 causes of ignorance in his Opus Majus Francis Bacon considered Roger Bacon an exceptional figure among the Schoolmen for setting aside the scholastic disputations of his times and engaging in the mechanical understanding of the secrets of nature (according to . Francis Bacon’s 4 Idols, of the: Tribe Cave Marketplace (tyranny of words) Theater (received systems of thought) Roger Bacon’s 4 Causes of Ignorance Opinions of unlearned crowd Own apparent wisdom Influence of custom Unsuited authority

Francis Bacon (cont.d) rejected the Copernican hypothesis
for which Copernicus advanced no strong empirical arguments but for which Kepler advanced solid theory, then empirical support, but trial and error of theory first, not induction theory inspired not by data, but by Plato’s geometry of the 5 solids. admired Gilbert whose science of magnetism was a product of inductive method was unaware of work on the human body’s circulatory system by his own physician Harvey, who published it after Bacon died, and who had no high opinion of Bacon

Francis Bacon (cont.d) in his inductive method committed the error of ignoring the generative role of hypothesis Orderly arrangement/classification of data doesn’t itself fully generate/reflect a matching orderly arrangement of concepts in a hypothesis No rule has ever been found for automatic extraction/production of hypotheses from data Multiplicity of facts can be baffling: hypothesis is necessary for selecting the relevant facts Data mining can handle multiplicity but proposes only correlations (“simple enumeration”) without selecting which of the variables are explanatory doesn’t select which multiplicity of data is gathered

Francis Bacon (cont.d) in his inductive method committed the error of ignoring the generative role of hypothesis (cont.d) A testable consequence is often several deductive mathematical steps away from the hypothesis and only that consequence’s refutation disproves the hypothesis (thanks to especially valuable and infrequent refuting data), but the testable consequence’s truth does not confirm the hypothesis, only evidences it (in confirming data, less valuable for being so abundant).

Francis Bacon (cont.d) in his inductive method committed the error of ignoring the generative role of hypothesis (cont.d) John Stuart Mill in his “four” canons (same number as Francis Bacon’s Idols, or Roger Bacon’s causes of ignorance) of inductive method assumed the hypothesis of causality, and therefore the designation of “explanatory” versus “explained” variables. Method of agreement (in one instance): coincidence of occurrence difference (in one instance): coincidence of non-occurrence of one with occurrence of the other agreement & difference (in multiple instances) subtraction/elimination of known correlateds: to determine the relation among the remainder of variables

From the Renaissance to the Scientific Revolution

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "From the Renaissance to the Scientific Revolution"— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback

Log in

Auth with social network:

From the Renaissance to the Scientific Revolution

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "From the Renaissance to the Scientific Revolution"— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback