1. Writing Your Dissertation / Thesis Andrea Cheshire & Robert Blake Thanks to Anwen Woodcock & Maki Yasui

2. A2 Outline You as a Writer You as a Writer Planning and Preparation Planning and Preparation Actually Writing Actually Writing Plagiarism Plagiarism Writing Habits Writing Habits Q&A Q&A

3. B3 Getting to know yourself as a writer Part of pre-writing and the early writing stages is realising what kind of writer you are and that writing for many is not a linear process Look at the following slides describing writing types [adapted from Crème & Lea (2003)]. Look at the following slides describing writing types [adapted from Crème & Lea (2003)]. Can you classify yourself as one of these types of writer? Can you classify yourself as one of these types of writer?

4. B4 Getting to know yourself as a writer Can you classify yourself as one of these types of writer?  The ‘Diver’ writer  The ‘Patchwork’ Writer  The ‘Grand Plan’ Writer  The ‘Architect’ Writer

5. B5 Getting to know yourself as a writer: Diver Writers Divers leap in and start writing early on, to find out what they want to say. Divers start anywhere to see what emerges, before working towards a plan

6. B6 Getting to know yourself as a writer: Patchwork writers Patchwork writers work on segments (perhaps under headings) quite early in the process, and combine them with linking ideas and words later

7. B7 Getting to know yourself as a writer: Grand Plan writers Grand plan writers read and make notes, and do not write a plan or much else until they have an almost complete picture of the essay ready in their head

8. B8 Getting to know yourself as a writer: Architect writers Architects have a sense of the structure (perhaps before the content) and could produce a complex plan or spider diagram early in the process

9. B9 Getting to know yourself as a writer What might be the advantages and disadvantages of these styles? What might be the advantages and disadvantages of these styles? Which way of planning is most like your own? Which way of planning is most like your own? Can you classify yourself as one of these types of writer or as a writer do you mix styles? Can you classify yourself as one of these types of writer or as a writer do you mix styles?

10. B10 Planning and Preparation Timetables Timetables Reading Habits Reading Habits

11. B11 Timetabling Your Dissertation Make a wall/Gantt chart. Be realistic. Identify best work times and keep to a daily writing slot Make a wall/Gantt chart. Be realistic. Identify best work times and keep to a daily writing slot Section dissertation/thesis (Bite-size chunks) Section dissertation/thesis (Bite-size chunks) Familiarise yourself with deadlines and plan accordingly Familiarise yourself with deadlines and plan accordingly Include time taken for supervisor input (drafts, re-drafts) Include time taken for supervisor input (drafts, re-drafts)

12. B12 Good Planning- Research & Writing Look at the following examples of timetables & Gantt charts:  dissertation chart *  weekly chart*  detailed dissertation chart Which timetables do you find most helpful? What level of detail do you need? Would these timetables allow you to keep to schedule? Examples 1 & 2 from Strathclyde University Useful Learning website

13. B13 Planning- Research & Writing-Dissertation timetable

14. B14 Planning Research & Writing-Weekly timetable

15. B15 Planning- Research & Writing-Dissertation timetable

16. A16 Reading Habits Save literature searches Save literature searches Metalib / internet databases Metalib / internet databases Keep up to date with new research Keep up to date with new research Record of reading Record of reading Index Cards Index Cards Endnote Endnote Journal Journal Other formats* Other formats*

17. A17 What to Include in Your Reading Record Date read Date read Complete reference Complete reference Useful quotes - with page numbers Useful quotes - with page numbers Own opinions Own opinions What you think of the reading? What you think of the reading? How it fits in with your own work? How it fits in with your own work? Identifying opinions Identifying opinions

18. A18 End Note example

19. A19 Writing Knowing What to Write Knowing What to Write Initial Writing Tasks Initial Writing Tasks Writing About Existing Research Writing About Existing Research Organising Your Writing Organising Your Writing Writing Clearly Writing Clearly Editing Editing Referencing Referencing

20. A20 Knowing What to Write Requirements of PhD / MSc Requirements of PhD / MSc Departmental expectations Departmental expectations Word count, format etc. Word count, format etc. Look at previous dissertations/theses Look at previous dissertations/theses Postgraduate secretary Postgraduate secretary Organisation Organisation Level of writing Level of writing Content - how many experiments? Content - how many experiments? Don’t panic! Don’t panic!

21. A21 Actually Writing Other sessions in GSSE Other sessions in GSSE Initial Writing Tasks Initial Writing Tasks Writing about other people’s research Writing about other people’s research Writing about your own research Writing about your own research

22. B22 Initial writing tasks Ideas while reading: Documenting reading Documenting reading Summaries Summaries Reading & synthesising background theory Reading & synthesising background theory Critiques of other research Critiques of other research Drafting & revising proposals Drafting & revising proposals Logging experiments/pilots/observations Logging experiments/pilots/observations Sketching plan of work [Gantt chart etc] Sketching plan of work [Gantt chart etc] Explaining sequence of work [in sentences] Explaining sequence of work [in sentences] Sketching structure of thesis Sketching structure of thesis Speculative writing: routes forward in project Speculative writing: routes forward in project Design for progress or 1st year report Design for progress or 1st year report [MURRAY 2002]

23. B23 Writing prompts in the middle stages to outline your work What can I write about -the context background My research questions/hypotheses are e.g. [50 words] My research questions/hypotheses are e.g. [50 words] Researchers who have looked at the subject are [50 words] Researchers who have looked at the subject are [50 words] They argue that….[25 words] They argue that….[25 words] Smith argues that ….[25 words] Smith argues that ….[25 words] Brown argues that ….[25 words] Brown argues that ….[25 words] Debate centres on the issue of ….[25 words] Debate centres on the issue of ….[25 words] My research is closest to that of X in that ….[25 words] My research is closest to that of X in that ….[25 words] [slightly adapted from Murray 2002] [slightly adapted from Murray 2002]

24. B24 Why do we bring other scientists into our work? To demonstrate to readers and examiners that we are familiar with the field and that we have been selective in reviewing relevant studies To demonstrate to readers and examiners that we are familiar with the field and that we have been selective in reviewing relevant studies To provide an overview of current knowledge in a particular area of application and or/methodology To provide an overview of current knowledge in a particular area of application and or/methodology To provide a context for our current study and to locate it within a specific field To provide a context for our current study and to locate it within a specific field To review other studies critically To review other studies critically To highlight a gap in knowledge, areas of application, etc To highlight a gap in knowledge, areas of application, etc To justify the use of a particular methodology, area of application, etc To justify the use of a particular methodology, area of application, etc To support to data/facts To support to data/facts

25. B25 Methods of bringing other writers into our writing: We can either do this by 1. Rephrasing in our own words & adding an acknowledgement. This can be either through: summary or orparaphrase This is the norm for most writing in sciences & engineering. It also makes it easier for the writer to comment critically on the source text. This is the norm for most writing in sciences & engineering. It also makes it easier for the writer to comment critically on the source text. 2. Direct quotation & acknowledgement: this method is much less common in science & engineering

26. B26 Citing other writers in the body of your text : When you’ve paraphrased or summarised another writer, always acknowledge the source. You can do this in two ways: 1. Begin the sentence with the author’s surname + year of publication in brackets e.g. Berridge (2002) has demonstrated that statistical analysis can be used … This method emphasises the author you are citing. 2. Paraphrase the idea, then give the surname of the author + year of publication in brackets e.g. Statistical analysis can be used to demonstrate… (Berridge 2002) emphasises the study rather than author and can be used when the focus is on studies in your field. [See Andy Gillett’s very helpful UEFAP site. Look under citation and reporting http://www.uefap.co.uk/writing/writfram.htm ]

27. B27 Integrating the source into your text When reviewing other studies, they need to be integrated into your own text, rather than read as a series of disconnected voices of other researchers [patchwork writing]. So when you refer to another writer, you should begin and end in your own voice, with the middle part consisting of paraphrase or summary of the source and the final part a commentary on the contribution of this writer. However, you will still need to adopt an impersonal scientific style* [See session 1]. Harvey (1998:) outlines 3 basic principles for integrating sources in academic writing: 1. “Use sources as concisely as possibly so your own thinking isn’t crowded out by your presentations of other people’s thinking, or your own voice by your quoting of other people’s voices” To do this paraphrase is more effective than quotation.

28. B28 Integrating the source into your text 2. “Never leave your reader in doubt as to when you are speaking and when you are using materials from a source.” Part of your responsibility as a scientific writer is to make the source of any data very clear so that it can be verified. 3. “Always make clear how each source you introduce into your paper relates to your argument (analysis)” It is poor practice to insert quotations or a series of paraphrases without indicating how each source is used. Use paraphrasing [or (sparingly) quotations, for example, to support data, to illustrate a point, to give an opposing view, to evaluate and criticise a point

29. B29 Organising a review of other studies Avoid providing a purely narrative account of other studies. The literature review needs to be constructed logically and you’ll need to find a way of grouping studies. Here are some suggestions for doing so: Follow a general- to -specific pattern Follow a general- to -specific pattern Chunk studies using a matrix structure, by explaining the overall structure first before examining a particular branch in detail. Tell the reader when you are returning to the main stem of the branch [signposting] Chunk studies using a matrix structure, by explaining the overall structure first before examining a particular branch in detail. Tell the reader when you are returning to the main stem of the branch [signposting] Introduce each paragraph with a clear topic sentence (beginning sentence of each paragraph). This should make clear the aspect of literature that is being reviewed and the purpose of that aspect of your review. Introduce each paragraph with a clear topic sentence (beginning sentence of each paragraph). This should make clear the aspect of literature that is being reviewed and the purpose of that aspect of your review. Each study discussed needs a clear introduction that highlights its purpose or relevance. A possible pattern is: Each study discussed needs a clear introduction that highlights its purpose or relevance. A possible pattern is: General idea of study General idea of study Application/relevance Application/relevance Strengths and weaknesses Strengths and weaknesses If relevant, relationship with to the present study If relevant, relationship with to the present study

30. B30 Reporting other scientists’ work One of the most difficult skills for postgraduate students is to develop a critical discussion of other writers' work. Dissertation writers and supervisors have commented on the difficulties of 1] clearly distinguishing their critical voice from that of the authors they are reading 2] indicating their position in relation to the work they are reviewing. The next slide gives a list of verbs used to report others writers’ ideas. Select 10 of these that would most commonly used in your field Select 10 of these that would most commonly used in your field Delete verbs that would not be used in your field? Delete verbs that would not be used in your field? Are there verbs you wish to add? Are there verbs you wish to add?

31. B31 Verbs for reporting other scientists’ findings

32. B32 How reporting verbs indicate your position towards the source You can see from the table that selecting a particular verb involves taking a particular position in relation to other scientists’ ideas. We can grade reporting verbs on a scale i.e. from those that show a strong level of agreement to those that indicate a strongly negative stance. Show can be seen as positive as it reports an observation or finding as a proven fact. At the other end of the scale, claims disassociates the writer from the position of the author cited. This allows the writer to establish a critical perspective and follow with a counterargument.

33. B33 How reporting verbs indicate your position towards the source Task The table below contains 16 reporting verbs that range from positive to negative. Can you sort these verbs into the categories in table 2? Table 2 POSITIVENEUTRALNEUTRAL TO NEGATIVE

34. A34 Writing About Your Own Research How it is different from writing a paper How it is different from writing a paper Length Length More space for arguments and justification More space for arguments and justification Tell a story over a number of studies Tell a story over a number of studies Accumulative Accumulative Demonstrating competence as a researcher Demonstrating competence as a researcher Audience? Audience? Scholars in area, external examiner, supervisor Scholars in area, external examiner, supervisor

35. A35 Organising Your Writing Overall Plan Overall Plan A paragraph per chapter outlining the key points/arguments A paragraph per chapter outlining the key points/arguments How each paragraph links together How each paragraph links together Can be revised Can be revised Stick it on your office wall Stick it on your office wall

36. A36 Organising Your Writing Chapter plans Chapter plans Experiments Experiments Intro, method, results, discussion Intro, method, results, discussion Other chapters (Dunleavy, 2003) Other chapters (Dunleavy, 2003) Intro (200-1000 words) Intro (200-1000 words) 3/4 main sections (2000-2500 words each) 3/4 main sections (2000-2500 words each) Conclusion (200-1000 words) Conclusion (200-1000 words)

37. A37 Writing Clearly Good structure Good structure Logical Logical Paragraphs single units of thought Paragraphs single units of thought Readability Readability Straightforward language Straightforward language Simple grammar Simple grammar Managing readers’ expectations Managing readers’ expectations Relevancy / need to know basis Relevancy / need to know basis

38. A38 Writing Not-So-Clearly Inaccessibility Inaccessibility Too much jargon Too much jargon Too parsimonious Too parsimonious Long sentences Long sentences Picking up bad habits Picking up bad habits

39. A39 A Good Paragraph Good length Good length Approx 150 words Approx 150 words A ‘topic’ sentence A ‘topic’ sentence Opening sentence - sets up what the paragraph is about Opening sentence - sets up what the paragraph is about The main body The main body E.g., argument, justification, elaboration or analysis. E.g., argument, justification, elaboration or analysis. The ‘wrap’ The ‘wrap’ Clear, bottom line message Clear, bottom line message

40. A40 A Good Chapter Interesting opening Interesting opening High impact High impact Memorable quotation / striking example / problem or paradox Memorable quotation / striking example / problem or paradox Framing text Framing text Linking opening to main points in chapter Linking opening to main points in chapter 1 paragraph - 4 pages 1 paragraph - 4 pages Effective signposts Effective signposts E.g., First… Second… Finally… E.g., First… Second… Finally…

41. A41 A Good Chapter Subsections Subsections Short headings (punchy, 4-8 words) Short headings (punchy, 4-8 words) Framing text Framing text Brief conclusions Brief conclusions Draw out the main message Draw out the main message Chapter conclusions Chapter conclusions At least 2 paragraphs long At least 2 paragraphs long Gather key points (use section conclusions) Gather key points (use section conclusions) Outline broader issues Outline broader issues Point forwards to the next chapter Point forwards to the next chapter

42. A42 Editing Vital part of writing Vital part of writing Accept the fact you have to edit Accept the fact you have to edit Timetable editing sessions Timetable editing sessions Expect to have to completely rewrite sections Expect to have to completely rewrite sections Time in between writing and editing Time in between writing and editing Using your supervisor Using your supervisor Set up clear deadlines - both ways Set up clear deadlines - both ways Ask for clarification Ask for clarification

43. A43 Editing Different levels Different levels Word level Word level misspellings, grammar mistakes, repetition of words misspellings, grammar mistakes, repetition of words Paragraph level Paragraph level How different sections link to each other How different sections link to each other Chapter level Chapter level Can your argument be strengthened? Can your argument be strengthened? Can your links to previous research be strengthened? Can your links to previous research be strengthened? Use of external sources Use of external sources Conferences, reading groups, publications Conferences, reading groups, publications

44. A44 Editing Some questions to guide editing… Some questions to guide editing… Is the chapter structure good? Is the chapter structure good? Are the subheadings appropriate? Are the subheadings appropriate? Is the argument clear and logical? Is the argument clear and logical? Are your paragraphs linked to each other? Are your paragraphs linked to each other? Does each sentence say what you want it to? Does each sentence say what you want it to? Are there any sentences out of place? Are there any sentences out of place? Is the language appropriate? Is the language appropriate?

45. B45 Referencing References should be listed alphabetically or numerically depending on the conventions adopted by your department. Double check that you have listed all the works you have used in the text. References should be listed alphabetically or numerically depending on the conventions adopted by your department. Double check that you have listed all the works you have used in the text. Some departments specify the style of a particular journal. See your postgrad handbook or website for format e.g. Some departments specify the style of a particular journal. See your postgrad handbook or website for format e.g. ES dissertation referencing guidelines: http://www.es.lancs.ac.uk/studentshome/Masters/dissertations/Au thorRefSheet.pdf

46. B46 Citation- referring to other writers in the main body of your work If you are using the author –year system in the main body of the text, use the name and date form e.g. If you are using the author –year system in the main body of the text, use the name and date form e.g.... the texture of rock buns is akin to that of gabbro (Beaton, 1834), although Craddock (1975) has argued that they are nearer to diorite, and examples of Diserens et al. (1979) have been widely likened to peridotite..... the texture of rock buns is akin to that of gabbro (Beaton, 1834), although Craddock (1975) has argued that they are nearer to diorite, and examples of Diserens et al. (1979) have been widely likened to peridotite..

47. B47 Citation-Web Referencing Do not include URLs in the text! Simply give the author/body and date as with the citation convention detailed previously e.g. Do not include URLs in the text! Simply give the author/body and date as with the citation convention detailed previously e.g. …Two different Fluxnet (Baldocchi et al. 2001b) deciduous forest sites have been chosen for the illustration of the model development: Harvard Forest, Massachusetts (HF, 1994-1999, Wosfy & Munger 2003) and University of Michigan Biological Station, Michigan (UMBS, 1999- 2001, Curtis 2003, Schmidt et al. 2003)… …Two different Fluxnet (Baldocchi et al. 2001b) deciduous forest sites have been chosen for the illustration of the model development: Harvard Forest, Massachusetts (HF, 1994-1999, Wosfy & Munger 2003) and University of Michigan Biological Station, Michigan (UMBS, 1999- 2001, Curtis 2003, Schmidt et al. 2003)…

48. B48 Web references in the reference list [author- year system] Curtis, P.S. (2003) UMBS Forest Carbon Cycle Research. UMBS research. Ameriflux network. UMBS data access. http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/ftp/ameriflux/data/us- sites/preliminary-data/UMBS (data accessed on February 14, 2003) Wofsy, S.C., Munger, J.W. (2003) Harvard University. Atmospheric Sciences. Forest and Atmospheric Measurements. Data exchange. NIGEC data archive. http://www- as.harvard.edu/data/nigec-data.html (accessed on June 23, 2003)

49. B49 Referencing: further guidelines Keep an accurate record of all reading using a card index system or Endnote 9 + in your research journal Keep an accurate record of all reading using a card index system or Endnote 9 + in your research journal Check if a style manual or a particular journal is used as a model for citation & referencing in your department Check if a style manual or a particular journal is used as a model for citation & referencing in your department The UEFAP website provides a good introduction to citation, referencing, paraphrase & summary with exercises The UEFAP website provides a good introduction to citation, referencing, paraphrase & summary with exercises http://www.uefap.co.uk/writing/writfram.htm http://www.uefap.co.uk/writing/writfram.htm Try also http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_paraphr.html Try also http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_paraphr.html

50. B50 Plagiarism Plagiarism means using other writers’ ideas, words or frameworks without acknowledgement. It means that you are falsely claiming that the work is your own. This can range from deliberate plagiarism such copying whole papers, paragraphs, sentences or phrases without acknowledgement to splicing phrases from other writers into your work without acknowledgement.

51. B51 What are the limits of plagiarism? From Purdue University http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_plagiar.html

52. B52 What are the limits of plagiarism? 1. Copying a paragraph verbatim from a source without any acknowledgement. 2. Copying a paragraph & making small changes - e.g. replacing a few verbs, replacing an adjective with a synonym; acknowledgement in the bibliography. 3. Cutting and pasting a paragraph by using sentences of the original but omitting one or two and putting one or two in a different order, no quotation marks; with an in-text acknowledgement plus bibliography. 4. Composing a paragraph by taking short phrases from a number of sources & putting them together using words of your own to make a coherent whole with an in-text acknowledgement + bibliography. 5. Paraphrasing a paragraph by rewriting with substantial changes in language & organisation; the new version will also have changes in the amount of detail used & the examples cited; citing in bibliography. 6. Quoting a paragraph by placing it in block format with the source cited in text & bibliography. [Carroll J. 2000 Teaching News November, 2000. Based on an exercise in Academic Writing for Graduate Students by Swales and Feak, University of Michigan, 1993] on http://www.ilt.ac.uk/resources/Jcarroll.htm Accessed 12/05/2003

53. A53 Writing Habits Regular writing sessions - daily? Regular writing sessions - daily? Writing location Writing location Office vs home vs library vs other Office vs home vs library vs other Writing times Writing times When? When? For how long? For how long? Reference as you are going along! Reference as you are going along!

54. A54 Potential Problems Worried about feedback Worried about feedback Bored and tired Bored and tired Lack of momentum Lack of momentum Hard Hard Lack of rewards Lack of rewards Too high expectations Too high expectations Size Size Other pressures on your time Other pressures on your time

55. A55 How to overcome problems Just do something… Just do something… Talk through problems with supervisor Talk through problems with supervisor Have a break from writing Have a break from writing Set manageable goals Set manageable goals

56. A56 Sources of Help Thesis in Progress Thesis in Progress http://www.lancs.ac.uk/depts/celt/sldc/ courses/tip.htm http://www.lancs.ac.uk/depts/celt/sldc/ courses/tip.htm Student Support Student Support Reading/Research Groups Reading/Research Groups Seminars and Conferences Seminars and Conferences Internet Internet Books… Books…

57. A57 Some Recommended Books Dunleavey, P. (2003). Authoring a PhD Dunleavey, P. (2003). Authoring a PhD Murray, R. (2002) How to Write a Thesis. Murray, R. (2002) How to Write a Thesis. Sternberg, R. (2000). Guide to Publishing in Psychology Journals. Sternberg, R. (2000). Guide to Publishing in Psychology Journals.

58. B58 Next week Alistair Hetherington on Writing Grant Proposals Alistair Hetherington on Writing Grant Proposals Analysis of past dissertations/theses- please read one and look at the questions before next week’s session Analysis of past dissertations/theses- please read one and look at the questions before next week’s session

59. A59 Good Luck!  Robert Blake  r.blake@lancaster.ac.uk  Andrea Cheshire  a.cheshire@lancaster.ac.uk Any questions?

60. B60 Verbs for reporting other scientists’ findings