1. English language teaching
For use with Chapter 9 of: Galloway, N. and Rose, H. (2015). Introducing Global Englishes. Routledge. © Dr. Heath Rose and Dr. Nicola Galloway

2. Review of Lecture 8 (1) Attitudes are complex.
Attitudes are influenced by many factors: culture, familiarity, vitality and prestige, pedagogical context, race, proficiency, and motivation.
Language attitudes are subject to change.
There is a need for both short- and long-term studies.
Research into the attitudes of learners can provide teachers with an awareness of their learners’ beliefs, help inform curriculum development, increase self-awareness among the learners, foster autonomous learning, and encourage them to think critically about the language.

3. Review of Lecture 8 (2)
Studies reveal that NE is highly valued and many in the education context prefer to follow a NES model.
However, many of the studies have limitations regarding methodology and very few investigate the possible reasons for attitudes.
Can they be used to justify the dominance of the NE model?
Do learners need more choice?
More studies are needed.
Lecture 6 looked at influence of GE instruction on attitudes and attitudes towards English teachers.

4. Overview The ‘native’ English speaker
Global Englishes language teaching (GELT)
Barriers to innovations in ELT
Relevant research studies

5. Introductory activities
Look at the job advertisements (Figure 9.1) in the introduction to Chapter 9, then discuss the questions below.
What is your reaction to the job advertisement in Figure 9.1?
Are they typical of job advertisements for English teachers in your home country?
Why do some institutions value the nativeness of a teacher’s English over formal qualifications?
Think of English language teachers in a context you are familiar with. What qualifications are needed to teach in this context? Is there a divide between native English-speaking teachers (NESTs) and non-native English-speaking teachers (NNESTs)? If so, why does this divide exist?
Why are some ‘native’ varieties of English preferred over others, from an English teaching standpoint? Why do you think these varieties are preferred?
In Chapter 2, it was shown that English speakers in NES countries tend to adhere to a ‘standard’ English ideology for written English, but attach identity and pride in the diversity of spoken Englishes. Why, then, does the English language teaching profession in NNES countries promote a standard language ideology that speakers should aim to emulate the certain types of native English speakers (namely standard American and British RP)?

6. The ‘native’ English speaker
Part 1
The ‘native’ English speaker

7. The native English speaker in ELT
Positive attitudes towards NE in relation to ELT (Lecture 5).
‘The uncrowned king of linguistics’ (Mey, 1981, p. 73).
Traditionally, theories about language learning have posited the NES as the goal:
Chomsky’s (1965) use of the expression ‘native speaker’ as the ‘ideal speaker-listener’.
Even when the focus shifted from the Chomsky-inspired idea of ‘linguistic competence’ to the Hymesian notion of ‘communicative competence’, the NES continued to serve as the yardstick for comparison, even if that was not the original intention.

8. Current hiring practices perpetuate stereotypes that NE is correct and that English should be learned from a NEST
‘Native Speaker of English with a neutral accent’ (Poland, TransitionsAbroad)
‘Native English speaker and university degree required (education preferred)’ (Japan, ohayosensei.com)
‘On a global level, the ELT profession is perhaps the world’s only occupation in which the majority faces discrimination’ (Ali, 2009, p. 37)
‘English teachers from the Outer and Expanding Circles have never filled teaching positions in well-established private schools, colleges and universities in the GCC’ (Ali, 2009, p. 36)
‘India's teachers face “native-only” bar’ (Guardian Weekly, 10 April 2012)
‘Native English speakers with a neutral native dialect’ (China, Pearson Longman School)

9. Figure 9.1: Job advertisements

10. NE ownership is further perpetuated in ELT materials and examinations
The Cambridge Grammar of English (Carter and McCarthy, 2006) – has ‘error warning symbols’.
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – notes that ‘You cannot say “discuss about something”’.
Practical English Usage (Swan, 2005) – has a section called ‘Don’t say it’ which outlines 130 common mistakes.
A Native English Speaker Would Say it This Way (Williamson and Katsuki, 2005).
How Your English Sounds to Native Speakers (Thayne and Koike, 2008).

11. Are things changing?
Despite their dominance, the idealistic notion of the NES prevalent in the 1960s has been called into question in recent years:
Are new goals required?
Is a native accent more intelligible?
Why is a native accent no longer relevant?
What exactly is a ‘native’ accent and who is a ‘native’ speaker?
There is a need to explore attitudes and stereotypes in depth (Lecture 5):
Cook (1999, p. 196) – ‘this acceptance of the native speaker model does not mean these attitudes are right’.
Holliday (2009) – how far would students’ preferences be provided for if, for instance, they requested male or white teachers?
The prevalence of NES norms are evidently complex, yet this complexity should not act as a deterrent for a critical examination of current ELT practice.
A possible decline in importance is evident in the three areas shown on the following slide.

12. Figure 9.2: The demise of the native English speaker

13. 1. Terminology problems (1)
Problematic definitions
A substantial body of literature exists on what defines a NS, and many scholars have attempted to provide a workable and rational distinction between a NES and a NNES:
Paikeday (1985) – the NS ‘exists only as a figment of a linguist’s imagination’, preferring the term ‘proficient user’.
Rampton (1990, 1995) – in addition to language expertise (the main criterion), the concept of a NS includes language affiliation and language inheritance.
Davies (1991, 2003) – five defining features of a NS, although these are neither necessary nor present in all average NESs.
No exact definition of a NS to which everyone subscribes and distinctions are blurry (Lecture 1).
Some studies also reveal that many self-ascribed NNESs can pass for NESs in certain situations (Inbar-Lourie, 2005), and that self-ascribed NESs can be taken for NNESs by their students (Moussu, 2006).
If we cannot define a native speaker, then can we define a non-native speaker of English?

14. 1. Terminology problems (2)
Legitimacy problems
Ascribes power to NESTs while presenting the NNESTs as ‘lacking’ something (Holliday, 2005)?
Perpetuates stereotypes?
A ‘life-long apprenticeship for the L2 speaker’ (Tollefson, 1995) that has negative effects on SLA?
Cook (1999) refers to Labov’s (1969) classic argument that one group should not be measured against the norm of another.
Unrepresentative
Implies homogeneity (Seidlhofer, 2003, p. 183)?
Lectures have shown that most NESs don’t speak a ‘standardized’ version and monolingualism is no longer the norm:
‘The concepts “native speaker” and “mother tongue speaker” make little sense in multilingual societies where it may be difficult to single out someone’s mother tongue’ (Kirkpatrick, 2007, p. 9).
Can we label speakers based on their mother tongue?

15. 2. Teaching competence
Phillipson’s (1992a) ‘native speaker fallacy’ – the belief that ‘the ideal teacher of English is a native speaker’:
NS abilities could be instilled in NNS through teacher training.
NNSs have undergone the process of learning a (second) language and are therefore better qualified to teach the language.
Language teaching is no longer synonymous with the teaching of culture, and thus could be taught by teachers who did not share the same culture as the language they taught.
As highlighted in Lecture 5, Dorneyi has revisited the notion of integrative motivation, and it is clear that the target English-speaking community is now difficult to define.
Research suggests that NE is not necessarily most intelligible (Jenkins, 2006) – e.g. BELF training for NESs (Lecture 4).
Kim and Elder’s (2009) study of air traffic controllers and NES/NNES pilot communications in Seoul – NNESs easier to understand and experience was found to be more important than English use or experience.
The NES episteme may still dominate, but it is becoming increasingly clear that NESs may not necessarily provide the ‘best’ model.

16. 3. Growing awareness of GE
Despite the spread of English, lectures have highlighted that NE still dominates and NNE continues to be seen as inferior and illegitimate by many.
As introduced in Lectures 3 and 4, the issue of expecting near-native proficiency has also been heavily discussed in relation to the WE and ELF research paradigms.
Are new competencies required to make English more relevant for ELF usage?
Does the NES model fail to equip students for real-world uses of English, at least for those who do not require English for NES contexts?
‘The unquestioned assumption that the language norms and practices associated with native-speaker varieties should be regarded as automatically relevant and legitimate has been considerably lessened’ (Leung and Street, 2012, p. 88).
Although many students and teachers still cling to NES norms (Lecture 5), a number of proposals have been put forward for change and it is a popular topic.

17. Examples of a growing literature
‘Debate surrounding the global presence of English has gradually become more commonplace at ELT conferences and publications’ (Jenkins et al, 2001, p. 305).
WE, GE, and ELF book sections and chapters on ELT
Jenkins, 2009b; Kirkpatrick, 2007, 2010a, 2010b; Kachru and Nelson, 2006; Melchers and Shaw, 2011; Seidlhofer, 2011.
Entire books
Alsagoff et al., 2012; Dogancay-Aktuna and Hardman, 2008; McKay, 2002; Matsuda, 2012; Sharifian, 2009; Walker, 2010.
ELF-related articles in language teaching journals
Jenkins, 2012; Alptekin, 2012; Baker, 2012; Cogo, 2012b; Sowden, 2012; Suzuki, 2011; Jenkins et al., 2011; Kirkpatrick, 2011.

18. Global Englishes language teaching (GELT)
Part 2
Global Englishes language teaching (GELT)

19. Global Englishes language teaching
The pedagogical implications of the global spread of English is clearly becoming an increasingly important area. Several proposals have also been put forward for a change in ELT, and Galloway and Rose (2015) group these into six key themes:
Increasing WE and ELF exposure in language curriculums.
Emphasizing respect for multilingualism in ELT.
Raising awareness of Global Englishes in ELT.
Raising awareness of ELF strategies in language curriculums.
Emphasizing respect for diverse cultures and identities in ELT.
Changing English teacher hiring practices in the ELT industry.

20. 1. Increasing WE and ELF exposure in language curriculums
Exposure to WE; legitimacy; endormative nativized models.
Exposing students ‘to as many varieties of English as possible would do more to ensure intelligibility than trying to impose a single standard on everyone’ (D’souza, 1999, p. 273).
To be able to communicate successfully with people all over the globe, students need to comprehend different varieties ‘so that they are better prepared to deal with English interactions in international contexts’ (McKay, 2012, p. 73).
Needs analysis.
2. Emphasizing respect for multilingualism in ELT
Diversity; multilingualism; usefulness of L1.
‘It is important that we, as language educators, recognize this fact and work to preserve and promote all languages that an individual has access to’ (McKay, 2012, p. 36).
Kirkpatrick (2012) – ‘norms’ of successful Asian multilinguals and adapt the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR).
Friedrich (2012, p. 50) – ‘If the only constant in lingua franca situations is diversity, then we should anchor our practices in that assumption and educate students to encounter such diversity with respect, curiosity and wisdom.’
3. Raising awareness of Global Englishes in ELT
Direct teaching of issues surrounding GE.
(Galloway, 2011, 2013) – raise awareness of use and increase confidence.
Whole course or elements (Galloway and Rose, 2013, 2014).

21. 4. Raising awareness of ELF strategies in language curriculums
Community of practice.
Strategies to ‘shuttle between communities’ (Canagarajah, 2005, p. xxv).
Focus on multilingual and multicultural communicative practices, and on negotiation and communicative strategies.
Interaction strategies (McKay, 2002); awareness of ELF usage (House, 2012).
5. Emphasizing respect for diverse cultures and identities in ELT
Culture as a fluid concept .
Move from monocultural/monolingual norms to ‘look at the communicative practices of multilingual and multicultural speakers to understand ELF communication’ (Baker, 2012, p. 46).
Intercultural competence.
Pragmatics orientated approach (House, 2012, p. 200).
6. Changing English teacher hiring practices in the ELT industry
More NNESTs or multilingual English teachers (METs) (Kirkpatrick, 2009, 2012).
Re-examine the concept of qualified teachers (McKay, 2012).
Large talent pool – 80% of the English teachers worldwide are NNESTs (Braine, 2010, p. x).

22. Table 9.1: Differences between ELT and GELT
ELT
GELT
Target interlocutor
Native English speakers
Native English speakers and non- native English speakers
Owners
Native English speakers and non-native English speakers
Target culture
Fixed native English culture
Fluid cultures
Teachers
Non-native English-speaking teachers (same first language) and native English-speaking teachers
Non-native English-speaking teachers (same and different first language), native English-speaking teachers
Norms
Native English and concept of standard English
Diversity, flexibility, and multiple forms of competence
Role model
Successful ELF users
Materials
Native English and native English speakers
Native English, non-native English, ELF, and ELF communities and contexts
First language and own culture
Seen as a hindrance and source of interference
Seen as a resource
Ideology
Underpinned by an exclusive and ethnocentric view of English
Underpinned by an inclusive Global Englishes perspective

23. ELT > GELT
Epistemic break (Kumaravadivelu, 2012, p. 14) defined as a ‘thorough re-conceptualization and a thorough re-organization of knowledge systems’.
‘The native-speaker episteme has not loosened its grip over theoretical principles, classroom practices, the publication industry, or the job market. What is surely and sorely needed is a meaningful break from this epistemic dependency if we are serious about sanitizing our discipline from its corrosive effect and sensitizing the field to the demands of globalism and its impact on identity formation. How and where do we start?’ (Kumaravadivelu, 2012, p. 15).
‘This epistemic break … requires a shift in materials design, views on ownership, cultures, norms and role models, as well as a change in those who teach it. However, this approach does not necessarily mean that teaching methods have to be changed, but that the assumptions about the English language are changed, which permeate into ELT materials, language assessment, cultural ideology, language ideology, and recruitment practices. In addition, such proposals are not suggesting “that we abolish all teaching discrete linguistic items nor that we ignore the pull that nativeness still has over learners and users” (Friedrich, 2012, p. 50). Instead, it simply involves a re-examination of current ELT practices in light of the changes in the use of English’ (Galloway and Rose, 2015).

24. Barriers to innovations in ELT
Part 3
Barriers to innovations in ELT

25. What are teachers to do?
Theory/practice divide – ‘the volume of such academic attention does not seem to have had a tangible impact on actual classroom reality’ (Saraceni, 2009, p. 177).
Five possible barriers to innovation in ELT that have caused this theory/practice divide (Galloway and Rose, 2015):
A lack of materials.
Language assessment.
Teacher education.
Attachment to ‘standard’ English.
Teacher recruitment practices.

26. 2. Language assessment 1. A lack of materials
Few teachers ‘have a rich enough knowledge of and personal experience with all of the varieties and functions of Englishes that exist today, and thus they need to rely on teaching materials in order to introduce students to the linguistic and cultural diversity of English’ (Matsuda, 2012, p. 168).
Dominance of NE in materials.
Some GE-related books, but limited coverage of ELF, limited audio, aimed at a relatively advanced audience, and few include practical activities.
2. Language assessment
Focus on NES norms.
Pearson ( note that ‘the ability to communicate effectively in English is crucial to international success’, yet in their scoring guide, the Pearson Test of English General scores are related to the CEFR.
Proposals: communicative strategies (Canagarajah, 2007), accommodation skills (Jenkins, 2007), define achievement (McNamara, 2012).
But far more difficult (and expensive).
‘The consequences are likely to be as revolutionary as the advent of communicative language teaching some forty years ago’ (McNamara, 2012, p. 202).

27. 4. Attachment to ‘standard’ English 5. Teacher recruitment practices
3. Teacher education
MSc TESOL/App Ling.
Jenkins (2012, p. 492) doesn’t believe ‘it is our place to tell teachers what to do’.
Dewey (2012) – change must come from working with teachers themselves, but much of what is taught in teacher training programmes is at odds with ELF research.
Dewey (2012) and Widdowson (2012) – need for teachers to reconceptualize the notion of language, the very subject they teach.
4. Attachment to ‘standard’ English
Teachers have often spent time on NES goal.
Quirk (1990, p. 6) – teaching NNE is a ‘cheat’.
5. Teacher recruitment practices
Socially ingrained ideology of NES recruitment.
NESs attract business.

28. Relevant research studies: attitudes towards English teachers
Part 4
Relevant research studies: attitudes towards English teachers

29. Attitudes towards English teachers
Topic
Study
Country
Research design
Studies that involve attitudes when non-native English-speaking teachers share the same first language
Barratt and Kontra (2000)
Hungary and China
Hungary (116 students and 58 teachers), China (100 students and 54 teachers)
Free writing
Benke and Medgyes (2005)
Hungary
422 students
Questionnaires
Lasagabaster and Sierra (2005)
The Basque country
76 university students
Questionnaires (open and closed)
Cook (2005)
Six countries
Young L2 students (aged 14 on average) and adults (sample size unspecified)
Questionnaire
Studies that involve attitudes toward non-native English-speaking teachers with a different first language
Kirsty Liang (2002) (cited in Braine, 2005, 2010)
USA
20 ESL students
Audio recordings of six ESL teachers (five non-native English speakers from different language backgrounds and one native English speaker)
Mahboob (2004)
32 students from diverse language backgrounds
Opinion essays

30. The ideal English teacher
Topic
Study
Country
Research design
The ideal English teacher
Pacek (2005) UK
2 groups of university students
Questionnaires and interviews
Cheung (2002) (cited in Braine, 2005, 2010)
Hong Kong
Questionnaires (420), interviews (10) with students, and classroom observations. 22 teachers were also used, 60% of whom were native English-speaking teachers
Galloway and Rose (2013)
Japan
Questionnaires (71 students in the first questionnaire, 236 in the second).
Focus groups – one with 4 student assistants (one native English speaker and three non-native English speakers) and one with 4 teachers (three native English speakers and one non-native English speaker).

31. NNESTs’ self-perceptions
Medgyes (1992, 1994) was one of the first to explore this issue.
In 1998 the Non-Native English Speakers in TESOL (NNEST) Caucus was established, which is now an Interest Section of the TESOL organization.
Studies include:
Medgyes (1992) in various countries.
Reves and Medgyes (1994) worldwide.
Samimy and Brutt-Griffler (1999) in a US university.
Arva and Medgyes (2000) in Hungary.

32. Conclusion of studies Varied results.
Students do not focus on the nativeness of their teachers as much as literature and societal beliefs might suggest.
Students rank personal and professional qualities of a teacher over the nativeness of their English language proficiency – helpful for GELT proposals.

33. The influence on language attitudes of Global Englishes instruction
Study
Country
N Size
Method
Results
Shim (2002)
Korea
27 TESOL masters students (own students)
Tape recordings of 5 different female NESTs and NNESTs
3rd study in 1998, after World Englishes exposure through TV (a programme called Crossroads Café)
23 wanted an internationally accepted model (although this is not explained) as a teaching model
27 felt there is a need to understand NNESs
27 would be willing to participate in an ELT programme that introduced NNESs.
Change in attitudes, but influence as teacher/researcher not discussed, little info on course, and little info on students – e.g. motivation and experience
Derwing et al. (2002)
Canada
64 first-year Canadian uni. students
Survey (pre and post) on response to foreign-accented Vietnamese English
3 groups – both types of instruction (cross-cultural awareness and explicit linguistic instruction); only cross-cultural training, and no instruction.
8 weeks
Instruction led to improvement in confidence that they could interact with NNESs

34. Study
Country
N Size
Method
Results
Kubota (2001)
America
17 American high school NESs
Survey about 6 speech samples (Australia, China, India, Ecuador, Nigeria, and France)
Observ; Int
WE course
Only some showed positive reactions, and some biased views towards NNES were reinforced
Indicates a need for starting early
Galloway (2013)
Japan
52 uni. students
Survey (pre and post)
Int
Quasi-experimental
GE course (13 weeks)
Influential – motivation for learning English, attitudes towards NNE and NNESTs, question notions of ‘standard’ English, helpful for future ELF communication, and raised confidence
Empirical basis for GELT
Galloway and Rose (2013)
120 uni. students; 5 NNES assistants; 4 lecturers
Survey
Focus groups
4 week module on GE, NNES guest speakers and classroom assistants
The curriculum, and the existence of expert ELF users as role models in the programme, played a large role in shaping the opinions of the students in the programme
Students displayed a more ELF-oriented view of English use than language and business-content teachers

35. Summary of Lecture 9
Traditionally ELT has posited NE as the main goal of English learning. Nevertheless, the importance attached to NESs is declining.
Studies show that students see NESTs and NNESTs as having different skills, the former being preferred for their perceived ‘fluency’ in the language.
Recent years have seen many proposals for the way ELT is approached.
GELT is clearly very different from traditional ELT, and the NES and the NNES are placed on equal footing with the aim to emancipate the NNES from the norms of a minority group of English users.
However, a number of barriers exist, including an attachment to ‘standard’ English, the prevalence of standardized language tests, and the continued recruitment of NESTs.

36. Key terms Language ideology Language standardization Yardstick
Linguistic competence
Communicative competence
Prejudice
Proficient user
Multicompetent language users
Interlanguage
Fossilization
Expert ELF users
EIL-related matters
Shuttling between communities
NEST
NNESTs
Native speaker fallacy
Norms
Endormative
Exonormative
Multilingual English user (MET)
Episteme
Epistemic break
Paradigm
Paradigm shift
Strategic competence
Intercultural competence

37. Further reading On native speakerism in ELT
Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
On non-native English-speaking teachers
Braine, G. (2010). Non-native Speaker English Teachers. Research, Pedagogy, and professional Growth. New York: Routledge.
On Global Englishes language teaching and barriers to ELT innovation
McKay, S. L. (2002). Teaching English as an International Language: Rethinking Goals and Approaches. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2012). ‘Individual identity, cultural globalization, and teaching English as an international language: The case for an epistemic break.’ In L. Alsagoff, S. L. McKay, G. Hu, and W. Renandya. (eds.), Teaching English as an International Language: Principles and Practices (pp. 9–27). New York: Routledge.
Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press.