1. PSY 368 Human Memory
Imagery &
Mnemonics

2. Brief outline for week Imagery Cases of superior memory
Effects
Theories
Cases of superior memory
Ways to improve you memory

3. Demo: Remembering a shopping list
Milk
Cereal
Hot dogs
Pickles
Mustard
Orange juice
Sponges
Toilet paper
Light bulbs
Cookies
Route
Classroom
Out by elevators
In elevator
DeGarmo lobby
Plaza
Quad
Bridge over College Ave
Area outside of Milner
Bone Student Center
Student Bookstore
Bizarre image
Dr. Cutting milking a cow in the classroom
Cptn’ Crunch sword fighting with Tony the Tiger
Three people roasting hotdogs over camp fire
Flood of pickle juice and floating pickles, have to step on pickles to get out
Etc. The more bizarre and vivid the image, the better. Add sounds and smells to your images

4. Imagery
A lot of the mnemonic techniques have an imagery aspect to them, so we will start with a discussion of imagery and memory

5. Historical Overview Three Ages of Mental Imagery:
The Philosophic Period
Mental images were taken to be the main factor in the makeup of the mind. Images were also sometimes believed to be the elements of thought.
The Measurement Period
Galton (1880), gave a questionnaire to 100 people asking them to remember their breakfast table and answer some questions about the images that they had. Created a measure of imagery that was related to sex, age, and other differences specific to individuals, but learned little else. With behaviorism, this died out.

6. Historical Overview Three Ages of Mental Imagery:
The Cognitive and Neurocognitive Period
Imagery studies and research was reborn in the late 1960s on two ideals.
The first was proposed by Sheehan and Neisser (1969). It dealt with the quantitative assessment of imagery. (see also Neisser & Kerr, 1973).
The second advance for imagery involved the incorporation of the concept into a cognitive model where the internal representation of information was a central element.

7. Imagery What is a mental image?
Is the mental representation of things that are not currently being sensed by the sense organs
How is it like reality, how is it different?
Hard to study, not directly observable and fade away quickly.
Does an image use the same neural hardware as experience?
Spatial ability is independent of verbal ability. We can test it using methods similar to operation span or digit span.
Example of test:
Cube folding: Will the arrows touch if you fold these into cubes?

8. Imagery and Memory Effects
Mental rotation tasks
Picture superiority effect
Image scanning effect
Bizarreness effect
Concreteness Effect

9. Imagery and Memory Effects
Mental rotation tasks
Mental rotation tasks suggest that you use images in working memory in an analog way.
Shepard and Metzler (1972): Rotate images, look at response time.
A: “Same” rotated in picture plane.
B: “Same” rotated in depth.
C: Different.

10. Imagery and Memory Effects
Picture superiority effect
Shepard (1967):
Present 612 pictures or words with a recognition test. After 2 hours approximately 100% accuracy for pictures, 88% for words. After a week about 88% for both.
Standing (1977):
Learn 1,000 words, 1,000 simple pictures, or 1,000 bizarre pictures. After 2 days recognition memory was 61.5% for words, 77% for pictures, and 88% for bizarre pictures.
Summation: Memory for pictures is better than memory for words, especially early on.

11. Imagery and Memory Effects
Image scanning effect
Paivio (1978)
For example, imagine these times on an analog clock face. Which of each pair has a bigger angle between the hands?
4:10 and 9:23
3:20 and 7:25
2:45 and 1:05
3:15 and 5:30
Results
Reaction times related to angular distance, smaller angle = larger RT
P’s who were high imagers were overall faster than low imagers

12. Imagery and Memory Effects
Image scanning effect
Scanning tasks show that the farther apart two things are on an image, the longer it takes to mentally scan from one to the other (e.g., Kosslyn, Ball, & Reiser, 1978).
Memorize this map…
There’s a hut, a tree, a rock, a lake, a well, sand, and grass.
Hear the name of an object, then another. Imagine a black dot zipping from one to the other on the shortest path.
Push a button when it gets there.

13. Imagery and Memory Effects
Image scanning effect
Scanning tasks show that the farther apart two things are on an image, the longer it takes to mentally scan from one to the other (e.g., Kosslyn, Ball, & Reiser, 1978).
Time to scan between all pairs of locations on imaged map

14. Imagery and Memory Effects
Bizarreness effect
Better memory for bizarre images
McDaniel & Einstein (1986)
Presented participants with sentences w/ underlined word triplets, within either bizarre or common sentence contexts (10 sets)
Bizarre: The dog rode the bicycle down the street
Common: The dog chased the bicycle down the street.
Instructions: Form an mental image that included the underlined words, and rate the vividness of the image
Following a 30 sec distractor task they were asked to recall the underlined words

15. Imagery and Memory Effects
Bizarreness effect
Better memory for bizarre images
McDaniel & Einstein (1986)
Presented participants with sentences w/ underlined word triplets, within either bizarre or common sentence contexts (10 sets)
Bizarre: The dog rode the bicycle down the street
Common: The dog chased the bicycle down the street.
Results, bizarre images were better recalled than common images
But only when in the context of common images
May not related to imaging ability, but rather distinctiveness
Von Restorff effect (isolation effects): The distinctive (or isolated) item “stands out” and is remembered better than other list items

16. Imagery and Memory Effects
Concreteness Effect
Read list of words
Typically better recall for the concrete items
Dollar
Cabin
Storm
Arrow
River
Book
Peach
Justice
Franchise
Session
Incident
Hope
Cost
Mood
dollar, justice, cabin, franchise, storm, session, arrow, incident, river, hope, book, cost, peach, mood

17. Imagery Images could be: Analog representations:
Pictures in the head: Images are what they feel like, a picture in the head whose properties are like the properties of the real thing
Perceptual processing: Images use the same perceptual hardware you use to see
Propositions: It’s essentially a verbal/symbolic thing. The feeling that you have an image is epiphenomenal, there isn’t really an image

18. Three Theories of Imagery
Functional-Equivalency hypothesis
Analog representations. Something like pictures, but not exactly the same
Conceptual-Propositional Hypothesis
No images, propositional representation
Paivio’s Dual-Coding Hypothesis
Perhaps both image and verbal (propositional?) representations for some things

19. Three Theories of Imagery
1. Functional-Equivalency hypothesis
Shepard and Kosslyn (e.g., Cooper & Shepard, 1978; Kosslyn & Pomerantz, 1977)
States that imagery and perception are extremely similar.
Shepard and Kosslyn introduced mental rotation of visual stimuli in memory.
Relationship between time required for a specific mental rotation and the actual degrees of rotation
Visual images reflect internal representations that operate in a way that is analogous to the functioning of the perception of physical objects

20. Three Theories of Imagery
Images use the same perceptual hardware you use to see.
Estes, Verges, & Barsalou (2008)
Reading words should lead to mental simulations of the words, using perceptual hardware.
Part of this simulation is location.
Trial:
Prime: Cowboy
Word: hat (upper location) or boot (lower location)
Target: Letter (X or O at top or bottom of the screen)
If you simulate the location, then hat should interfere with letters at the top (you’re using that perceptual hardware). Boot would be opposite.

21. Three Theories of Imagery
Images use the same perceptual hardware you use to see.
Estes, Verges, & Barsalou (2008)
Reading words should lead to mental simulations of the words, using perceptual hardware.
Results
Letters in objects’ typical locations took longer to identify.

22. Three Theories of Imagery
Images use the same perceptual hardware you use to see.
Zwaan & Yaxley (2003)
Spatial iconicity effects also suggest that location is part of the representation of words and that location simulation is part of comprehension.
Present a pair of words, are they related?
Attic
Basement Or

23. Three Theories of Imagery
Images use the same perceptual hardware you use to see.
Zwaan & Yaxley (2003)
When vertical arrangements were correct, participants were faster than when they were incorrect.
Again, location seems to be part of the understanding of a word.

24. Imagery But, pictures support processing that images don’t.
For example, it’s harder to decompose an image than it is to decompose a picture. (based on Reed, 1974)
Get a clear mental image of the picture below:

25. Imagery But, pictures support processing that images don’t.
For example, it’s harder to decompose an image than it is to decompose a picture. (based on Reed, 1974)
Are the following shapes in the picture you just saw?

26. Imagery But, pictures support processing that images don’t.
For example, it’s harder to decompose an image than it is to decompose a picture. (based on Reed, 1974)
Are the following shapes in the picture you just saw?

27. Imagery But, pictures support processing that images don’t.
For example, you can reverse pictures, but most people report that reversing images is very hard (relative to with a picture).
Chambers & Reisberg (1985)
Look at ambiguous figure, provide interpretation
Imagine the figure, provide a second interpretation, very hard to do
Draw image from memory, then give second interpretation, could do it

28. Three Theories of Imagery
Conceptual-Propositional Hypothesis
Anderson and Bower (e.g., Anderson, 1978, Bower, 1972, Pylyshyn, 1973)
Memory is not like a photograph
We store propositional interpretations of events, whether they be verbal or visual, rather than the imagery components.
Anderson and Bower explain that concrete concepts are coded by a rich set of predicates that bind concepts together. ..."the only difference between the internal representation for a linguistic input and a memory image is detail of information”

29. “The goal keeper missed the ball”
Theories of Imagery
Images could be:
Propositions: Essentially a verbal/symbolic thing. The feeling that you have an image is epiphenomenal, there isn’t really an image.
You saw
You heard
“The goal keeper missed the ball”
Same underlying propositional representations:
missed(goalkeeper, ball)
Image may provide even richer information:
wept(goalkeeper)
cursed(goalkeeper)

30. Three Theories of Imagery
Comparing Analog and Propositional codes
Analog Code
Picture-like code
Images like perceptions, retain some sensory qualities
Relations represented implicitly
Simultaneous
Different representations for each sense
Propositional Code
Word-like code
Images are descriptions of visual scenes
Relations represented explicitly
Sequential
Same representations for each sense
Anderson (1978): concluded that “it may not be possible to decide between imaginal and propositional representations strictly on the basis of behavioral data.”

31. Three Theories of Imagery
3. Paivio’s Dual-Coding Hypothesis
Proposed that words and images are processed separately (based on patients with temporal lobe damage who could not process images).
The basic tenant of this theory is that information is mentally represented either in a verbal system or a nonverbal (analog) system (or both).
Each system contains different kinds of information.
Each concept is connected to other related concepts in the same system and the other system.
Activating any one concept also leads to activation of closely related concepts.

32. Three Theories of Imagery
3. Paivio’s Dual-Coding Hypothesis
Explains many of the imagery effects
Concreteness effect
Verbal and visual (image) codes for concrete items
Picture superiority effect
Pictures automatically coded two ways, as and image and as a verbal description
Imagery instructions
Schnorr & Atkinson, (1969)
Studied pairs of associates using two instructions
Imagery instructions – 80%
Rote rehearsal - 40%

33. Three Theories of Imagery
3. Paivio’s Dual-Coding Hypothesis
Explains many of the imagery effects
Symbolic distance effect – it is easier to make judgments about items that are farther apart on a dimension than it is to make judgments about items that are close on a dimension.
true or false:
The fly is bigger than the flea.
The horse is bigger than the mouse.
The rabbit is bigger than the dog.
The mouse is bigger than the fly.
The dog is bigger than the horse.
slow
fast
slow
fast
slow

34. Three Theories of Imagery
3. Paivio’s Dual-Coding Hypothesis
Explains many of the imagery effects
Symbolic distance effect – it is easier to make judgments about items that are farther apart on a dimension than it is to make judgments about items that are close on a dimension.
Picture symbolic distance effect tasks are easier than verbal symbolic distance effect tasks (pictures access the system directly, verbal has to be recoded).

35. Three Theories of Imagery
3. Paivio’s Dual-Coding Hypothesis
Can using dual coding ever interfere with/disrupt memory?
Segal (1971): imagery tasks can interfere with visual perception
Brooks (1967): perceptual tasks can interfere with imagery
Try imaging President Lincoln’s face and read the text given below.
Imagery involves one or more of your five senses, hearing, taste, touch, smell, sight. An author uses a word or phrase to stimulate your memory of those senses. These memories can be positive or negative which will contribute to the mood of your poem…

36. Three Theories of Imagery
3. Paivio’s Dual-Coding Hypothesis
Can using dual coding ever interfere with/disrupt memory?
Schooler & Engstrom-Schooler (1990)
P's are shown a videotaped robbery. (This creates a visual memory.)
P's then either:
1) Are asked to imagine the robber.
2) Are asked to describe the robber.
3) Are asked to do a series of math problems. (control)
P's complete a recognition memory test picking the robber out of a lineup of eight persons.

37. Three Theories of Imagery
3. Paivio’s Dual-Coding Hypothesis
Can using dual coding ever interfere with/disrupt memory?
Schooler & Engstrom-Schooler (1990)
Results: Creating two codes can disrupt memory for information that is only represented in one code.

38. Demo: Remembering a shopping list
Okay, recall the shopping list. Run through the route from here to the bookstore in Bone.
List
Milk
Toilet paper
Cereal
Light bulbs
Hot dogs
Cookies
Pickles
Mustard
Orange juice
Sponges

39. Special Abilities Eidetic imagery
The Mind of a Mnemonist, Luria (1968, 1987)
Flashbulb memories

40. Special Abilities Eidetic imagery = Photographic memory
Criteria strict for classification - image = photograph
Eidetic images have more detail than normal and last longer than iconic memory.
Frequency of occurrence
Mostly in preadolescent children
Rare in adults - not well-studied
Eidetic images have more detail than normal and last longer than iconic memory.
8% of preadolescent kids.
Criteria strict for classification - image = photograph

41. Special Abilities The Mind of a Mnemonist, Luria (1968, 1987)
‘S’ (Solomon Shereshevsky, Russian journalist 7 mnemonist)
Average IQ
Could recall speeches verbatim
Memorize complex mathematical equations and matrices
Memorize text and poems, even in foreign language
Diagnosed as having severe Synesthesia
Musical tones were colors, touch were tastes
Thinking about numbers:
“take the number 1. This is a proud, well-built man; 2 is a high-spirited woman; 3 a gloomy person; 6 a man with a swollen foot; 7 a man with a moustache; 8 a very stout woman—a sack within a sack. As for the number 87, what I see is a fat woman and a man twirling his moustache”

42. Special Abilities The Mind of a Mnemonist, Luria (1968, 1987)
Synesthesia is a condition where sensations usually experienced in a single modality are experienced in two modalities.
This condition give psychologists some very interesting data and research.
Some examples of synesthesia are receiving an auditory signal or sensation in a visual modality, where it obviously shouldn’t be.
Synesthesia is rule governed, not random.
For example, there is a positive relationship between increasing the pitch of a sound and increased brightness.

43. Special Abilities Flashbulb memories Very vivid memories
Personally relevant – emotion
Difficult to study
Neisser and Harsch (1992) study
Where you were on Sept. 11
Challenger explosion in asked people day later about where they were, etc.
After 3 years they were inaccurate at remembering these things, but very confident they were accurate
No evidence they are different from normal memories.
Lots of detail
Where you were on Sept. 11
Challenger explosion in asked people day later about where they were, etc. - after 3 years they were inaccurate at remembering these things, but very confident they were accurate - no evidence they are different from normal memories.