1. Copyright  2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd, PPTs t/a Management Accounting: An Australian Perspective 3/e by Langfield-Smith, Thorne & Hilton Slides prepared by Kim Langfield-Smith Chapter 13 Financial performance measures for investment centres and reward systems

2. 2 Financial measures in investment centres  Summary financial measures are the performance of profit centres and investment centres ÙReturn on investment (ROI) ÙResidual income (RI) ÙEconomic value added (EVA)

3. 3 Return on investment  Return on investment (ROI) ÙUsed to measure the performance of an investment centre

4. 4 Return on investment

5. 5  Invested capital ÙThe assets that the investment centre has available to generate profits  Return on sales ÙThe percentage of each sales dollar that remains as profit after all the expenses are covered  Investment turnover ÙThe number of sales dollars generated by every dollar of invested capital

6. 6 Return on investment  Improving ROI ÙIncrease return on sales—increase selling price or sales revenue, or decrease expenses ÙIncrease investment turnover by increasing sales revenue or reducing invested capital ÙActions that are taken with the sole purpose of making these ratios more favourable may have adverse effects on performance in future years

7. 7 Advantages of ROI  Encourages managers to focus on both the profits and the assets required to generate those profits  Can be used to evaluate the relative performance of investment centres

8. 8 Limitations of ROI  Encourages managers to focus on short- term financial performance, at the expense of long-term viability and competitiveness  Encourages managers to defer asset replacement  Discourages managers from investing in projects which are acceptable from the organisation’s point of view, but decrease the investment centre’s ROI

9. 9 Minimising the behavioural problems of ROI  Use ROI as one of a series of performance measures that focus on both short-term and long-term performance  Consider alternative ways of measuring invested capital to minimise dysfunctional decisions  Use alternative financial measures, such as residual income or economic value added

10. 10 Residual income  Residual income = profit - (invested capital x imputed interest rate)  Imputed interest charge: based on the required rate of return that the firm expects of its investments, which is based on the organisation’s required rate of return

11. 11 Advantages of residual income  Promotes goal congruence  Takes account of the organisation’s required rate of return in measuring performance  Encourages investment in projects which yield a positive residual income

12. 12 Limitations of residual income  Cannot be used to assess relative performance of different-sized businesses  Formula is biased, in favour of larger businesses  Can encourage short-term orientation/focus

13. 13 Measuring invested capital  Total assets: investment centre manager is responsible for decisions about all assets  Total productive assets: investment centre managers retains non-productive assets  Total assets less current liabilities: investment centre responsible for decisions about assets + manages short-term liabilities  Choose average or end-of-year balances

14. 14 Asset measurement  Advantages of net book value ÙConsistency with balance sheet prepared for external reporting purposes ÙConsistent with the definition of profit  advantages of gross book value ÙDepreciation is arbitrary and should not be allowed to affect calculations ÙDepreciating non-current assets may provide a disincentive to invest in new equipment

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16. 16 Measuring profit  Profit margin controllable by investment centre manager ÙSuitable when the focus is performance of the manager  Profit margin attributable to investment centre ÙTo calculate the investment centre ROI

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18. 18 Measures of shareholder value  Shareholder value ÙImproving the worth of the business from the shareholders’ perspective  Value-based management ÙUsing shareholder value analysis to manage a business ÙA framework for making key business decisions that add economic value to the business ÙConsists of valuation, strategy finance and corporate governance

19. 19 Measures of shareholder value  Valuation ÙDiscounted cash flows (DCF) are usually used to measure value ÙFuture cash flows of the business are discounted taking into account the risk associated with those cash flows ÙValue drivers are the activities or actions that create value for a business vInclude spread, growth, sustainability and cost of capital

20. 20 Measures of shareholder value  Strategy ÙHas a substantial and continuing impact on the value of the business  Finance ÙFinancial policies will influence value creation  Corporate governance ÙInvolves selecting and implementing systems that contribute to value creation

21. 21 Measures of shareholder value  Economic value added (EVA) ÙMeasure of value created over a single accounting period

22. 22 Measures of shareholder value  To improve EVA ÙImprove profitability without employing additional capital ÙBorrow additional funds when profits earned are more that the cost of borrowing ÙPay of debt by selling assets  Limitations of EVA ÙPotential for manipulation and short-term orientation can arise

23. 23 Measures of shareholder value  Market value added (MVA) ÙThe economic value of a firm at a point in time = market value of the company – book value  Shareholder value added (SVA) = corporate value – the market value of debt

24. 24 Reward systems  Processes, practices and systems which are used to provide levels of pay and benefits to employees  Intrinsic rewards Ùintangible, arise from the positive experiences of being satisfied with performing well  Extrinsic rewards ÙGiven to employees

25. 25 Theories of motivation  Herzberg’s theory of work motivation ÙHygiene factors: provide the setting for encouraging employee motivation, but do not themselves motivate employees ÙMotivators: factors that relate to job content and which provide employee motivation

26. 26 Theories of motivation  Expectancy theory ÙEmployee motivation is a result of the relationships between expectancy, instrumentality and valence  Motivational theories need to be considered by managers when they are designing reward systems

27. 27 Performance-related systems  Performance-related pay systems (incentive compensation schemes) ÙLink employee rewards on achieving or exceeding some performance targets  Employee share plans (share option plans) ÙProvide employees with the right to purchase shares in their company, at a specified price at some specified future time

28. 28 Performance-related systems  Profit-sharing plans ÙCash bonuses are paid to each employee, based on a specified percentage of the company’s profit  Gainsharing ÙCash bonuses are distributed to employees when the performance of the company, or their segment of the company, exceeds some performance target

29. 29 Performance-related systems  Team-based incentive schemes ÙIndividuals are rewarded based on their work, team exceeding certain performance targets  Individual incentive plans ÙIndividuals are rewarded for achieving individual performance targets

30. 30 Group vs. individual performance  Consider the following issues ÙIdentification with the group ÙEquity among employees ÙCompetitiveness between employees ÙRelating individual effort to reward ÙRewarding only good performers  The timing of incentive payments can be crucial to achieving desired outcomes