1. Photoelectron Spectroscopy Lecture 7 – instrumental details –Photon sources –Experimental resolution and sensitivity –Electron kinetic energy and resolution –Electron kinetic energy analyzers

2. Laboratory Photon Sources Gas discharge VUV sources: ~ 0.005 eV resolution (40 cm-1) –He I: 21.2 eV (most common for UPS) –He II: 40.8 eV –Ne I: 16.7 eV 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p HV He I  h = 21.2 eV He I  h = 23.1eV

3. Related (sort of): Metastable Atoms Rare gas in high voltage can also form a metastable state –He* 2 3 S: 19.8 eV, lifetime ~ 10 sec –M + He*  M + He + e- –Transition probability depends on spatial overlap –Penning Ionization Electron Spectroscopy (PIES) or Metastable Atom Electron Spectroscopy (MAES) 1s 2s 2p HV E = 19.8 eV

4. Laboratory Photon Sources X-ray guns, ~ 1 eV resolution –Most used are: Mg K  (1253.6 eV); Al K  (1486.6 eV) –other sources from 100 – 8000 eV available

5. Laboratory Photon Sources Laser sources, ~ 8 eV max, very high resolution and intensity –pulsed source; not continuous flux of photons –photoelectron spectroscopy of negative ions Two or more photon ionization –Using powerful laser source, even these very low probability events can be observed. –Complete separate field of study is multi-photon ionization (MPI) spectroscopy. –Advantage: extremely high resolution. –We will discuss these in last lecture if we have time.

6. Synchrotron Radiation Source range of resolutions with various monochromators continuous range of photon energies additional cross section, resonance, polarization information The Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Lab

7. Why does the photon source chosen matter? We know that we need to select a photon source with sufficient energy to cause ionizations of interest to occur. Choice of photon source “sets” the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons of interest. Now we need to consider how to measure the kinetic energy of these electrons.

8. Electron Kinetic Energy Analyzers A few important concepts: –Throughput: What % of photoelectrons produced are detected –Resolution: How close in kinetic energy can two electrons be, and still be separated by the analyzer Resolving Power: E/  E higher kinetic energy, lower resolution –electrons with higher kinetic energy are faster than electrons with lower kinetic energy

9. Deflection (Electrostatic) Analyzers Electrons can be separated, focused by kinetic energy using an electric field Most common is the hemispherical analyzer Resolving power E/  E >1,000

10. Throughput of Deflection Analyzers Analyzer Entrance steradian: solid angle subtended by a circular surface A sphere subtends 4  steradians

11. More about kinetic energy and deflection analyzers: Resolving power: E/  E –This means resolution is dependent upon kinetic energy –Scanning through kinetic energy range to collect spectrum: different working resolutions for different portions of the spectrum Measured photoelectron count rate (intensity) –Also dependent upon kinetic energy How do get around these difficulties? –Slow down electrons before they get to analyzer

12. Rather than scanning through electron kinetic energies with a deflection analyzer: Use an electron-optics lens to slow electrons to a “pass energy” Gain better resolution, but lose sensitivity Hemispherical Analyzer with Electron Optics

13. Time-of-Flight Analyzers Resolving power ~100 Need to have “packets” of electrons Hence useful with lasers: low photon energy (therefore low kinetic energy), pulsed source Magnetic Bottle: Magnetic field in ionization region allows a large solid angle of photoelectrons to be collected, increasing spectrometer sensitivity. In principle, 2  steradians of photoelectrons can be collected.