1. Presented by Dr.J.L Mazher Iqbal
Analog Communication
Presented by
Dr.J.L Mazher Iqbal

2. FM and PM signals.
(a) Carrier. (b) Modulating signal. (c) FM signal. (d) PM signal

3. Phase modulation of a carrier

4. Modulation Index and Sidebands

5. Modulation Index and Sidebands

6. Modulation Index and Sidebands
FM Signal Bandwidth
Example:
If the highest modulating frequency is 3 kHz and the maximum deviation is 6 kHz, what is the modulation index?
mf = 6 kHz/3 kHz = 2
What is the bandwidth?
BW = 2fmN
Where N is the number of significant* sidebands
BW = 2(3 kHz)(4) = 24 kHz
*Significant sidebands are those that have an amplitude of greater than 1% (.01) in the Bessel table.

7. Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors, automotive ignition systems, and power line switching that produces transient signals.
Noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with high frequencies.
Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and interfere with it.
Some noise completely obliterates signal information.

8. Continued FM signals have a constant modulated carrier amplitude.
FM receivers contain limiter circuits that deliberately restrict the amplitude of the received signal.
Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal are effectively clipped by limiter circuits.
This amplitude clipping does not affect the information content of the FM signal, since it is contained solely within the frequency variations of the carrier.

9. Continued FM signals have a constant modulated carrier amplitude.
FM receivers contain limiter circuits that deliberately restrict the amplitude of the received signal.
Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal are effectively clipped by limiter circuits.
This amplitude clipping does not affect the information content of the FM signal, since it is contained solely within the frequency variations of the carrier.

10. Continued
Fig. 1 An FM signal with noise

11. Nonlinear system to reduce envelop variations (AM)
Nonlinear Distortion and Limiter
Nonlinear system to reduce envelop variations (AM)

12. Hard Limiter
FM with unwanted amplitude variation A(t). Those variation can be flattened out by an ideal hard limiter or clipper.
Clipper circuit uses a comparator or high gain operational amplifier such that any input voltages greater or less than zero cause the output voltage to reach either positive or negative power supply rails.
Clipper circuit employing back to back Zener diode with break down voltage at the output of a high gain amplifier.

13. Hard Limiter

14. Continued
The coefficients are then found from an

15. Continued

16. Continued
The Limiter plus BPF in (a) removes unwanted amplitude variation from AM or PM wave and would be used in receiver.

17. Deemphasis
Noise can interfere with an FM signal and particularly with the high-frequency components of the modulating signal.
Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy and contains a lot of harmonics and other high-frequency components.
Detected FM interference is most severe at large value of fi.
Post detected filtering improves the performance of the system.

18. Continued
Figure Deemphasis circuit

19. Continued
deemphasis
A simple low-pass filter can operate as a deemphasis circuit in a receiver.
Demodulator is followed by a low pass filter having a amplitude ratio that begin to decrease below W; this will de-emphasis the high frequency portion of the message band there by reduce the more serious interference.
A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency response to its normal flat level.

20. Preemphasis
Obviously de-emphasis filtering also attenuate the high frequency component of the message itself.
But it is simple matter to compensate for deemphasis distortion by preemphasizing the modulating signal at the transmitter before modulation.

21. Continued
To overcome high-frequency noise, a technique known as preemphasis is used.
A simple high-pass filter can serve as a transmitter’s pre-emphasis circuit.
Pre-emphasis provides more amplification of only high-frequency components.

22. Continued
Figure 2.Preemphasis and deemphasis. (a) Preemphasis circuit.

23. Filter frequency response

24. Filter function
deemphasis
Preemphasis

25. Continued
The combined effect of preemphasis and deemphasis is to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for the high-frequency components during transmission so that they will be stronger and not masked by noise.

26. Capture Effect
In referring to radio, capture effect, or FM capture effect, is a phenomenon associated with FM reception wherein only the stronger of two signals at, or near, the same frequency will be demodulated.
Capture effect is defined as the suppression of the weaker signal at the receiver limiter; where the weaker signal is not amplified, but attenuated.

27. Continued Demodulated Signal with Interference
The presence of Фi(t) in the above equation indicates potentially intelligent interference (or cross talk)

28. Continued

29. Contiued
When more than one signal is nearly equal in strength, or the signals are fading independently, the receiver may switch from one signal to the other and exhibit picket fencing.

30. Picket Fencing
Picket fencing is slang for the chopping effect sometimes heard by cell phone users at the edge of a cell's coverage area, or (more likely) by the landline user to whom the cell phone is connected.
"Picket fencing" refers to the way portions of speech are stripped from the conversation, as if the listener was walking by a picket fence, and hearing a conversation on the other side that changes audibly depending on the position of the pickets relative to the listener.

31. How do we measure it?
Capture Effect is measured as the lowest ratio of the power of two signals that will result in the suppression of the smaller signal.