1. Protein synthesis and replication
DNA
Protein synthesis and replication

2. DNA
Many new conservation techniques are using techniques based on genetic identification or manipulation.
Genetic strategies rely on an understanding of DNA.
The nucleus of a cell contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
DNA is also present in mitochondria and chloroplasts (plants)
DNA is arranged in structures called chromosomes, which are only visible when the cell is dividing.
The genes carry all the information for the development of the organism. Genes provide information about making proteins.
DNA is important as it controls cell activities and the appearance of individuals

3. How DNA works 1 Each gene is a section of DNA or sequence of bases.
The base sequences on the DNA acts as a code that controls the action of the cell.

4. Structure of DNA
DNA is a coiled double helix made up of nucleotides on a sugar phosphate backbone

5. DNA is made of nucleotides

6. Base pairing Adenine always pairs with Thymine
Thymine always pairs with Adenine
Cytosine always pairs with Guanine
Guanine always pairs with Cytosine

7. How DNA works 2
The code sequences are copied as mRNA, which is sent to the ribosomes, and used as the instructions to make proteins.
Amino acids are carried into the ribosomes by tRNA, which contain a 3 nucleotide section (anticodon) that matches with a 3 nucleotide section (codon) on the mRNA.
Each base links up with its base pair - cytosine with guanine, adenine with thymine.
This controls the order in which different amino acids are attached.

8. DNA codes for RNA
RNA is also made of nucleotides and is very similar to DNA except: Thymine is replaced by Uracil
The sugar in the sugar-phosphate backbone is different (ribose)
Strands are single not double
There are 3 types – mRNA, tRNA and rRNA

9. RNA structure
Transfer RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Messenger RNA

10. DNA controls protein synthesis

11. Definitions 1
DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid – carries the code that controls RNA production. This is a double helix
m-RNA - has the set of instructions for the order in which amino acids are to be assembled into proteins. This is a single strand of nucleotides
t-RNA - carries amino acids to the ribosome. This is a single strand of nucleotides

12. Definitions 2 Protein - long chains of amino acids, usually folded
Amino acid - building blocks of proteins
Ribosomes – site of protein synthesis – where mRNA is read. These are made of rRNA
Endoplasmic reticulum – membrane channels that ribosomes are attached to. Is responsible for transport and remodelling of protein (eg refolding or attaching carbohydrate groups to make glycoproteins)

13. Definitions 3
Transcription - copying of DNA to make RNA. Uses the base pair rule
Cytosine in DNA  Guanine in RNA
Guanine in DNA  Cytosine in RNA
Adenine in DNA  Uracil in RNA
Thymine in DNA  Adenine in RNA
(RNA contains Uracil not Thymine)
Translation - reading of mRNA to make proteins

14. Definitions 4
Codon - 3 base segment of mRNA – codes for particular amino acid
Anticodon - 3 base segment of tRNA (carrying a particular amino acid) that is the reverse of the codon on mRNA
Triplet – 3 base segment of DNA – that is the reverse for mRNA – which codes for a codon
Gene – section of DNA that controls one characteristic or protein
Start codon – the codon (AUG) that tells the ribosome to start making a protein

15. Definitions 5
Coding strand – the strand of DNA that has the same sequence as he RNA (but is not used to make the RNA)
Template strand – the strand of DNA that is the complement of the coding strand (the side that is used to make the RNA)
RNA polymerase – enzyme that makes the new strand of RNA

16. Definitions 6
Introns – nonsense sections in mRNA that are removed before it leaves the nucleus
Exons – the sections that code for protein sequence. When the mRNA leaves the nucleus it will have only exons

17. Why are proteins important?
Roles of proteins in the body include
Structural proteins eg collagen, keratin
Enzymes (organic catalysts) eg digestive enzymes
Transport proteins eg haemoglobin
Regulatory proteins eg hormones
Protective proteins eg antibodies, clotting factors

18. Gene expression
Each cell contains many genes that carry the information for making many proteins.
But not all of these genes are expressed in all cells in the body eg skin cells produce pigment (melanin) but do not make contractile proteins like muscle cells

19. Gene expression Gene expression is controlled by a number of factors.
Regulator genes produce proteins that bind to an operator gene and inhibit transcription
Operator genes is the start of a structural gene
Promoter genes indicate the structural genes that should be used to make particular mRNA at any given time
Environmental factors may turn genes on or off (epigenetics) by affecting how the DNA is coiled around the histones (and so whether it can be read easily)

20. DNA replication
DNA is capable of replication to produce identical copies
This occurs in interphase – before mitosis starts
One set of enzymes split the strands
Another set of enzymes join new nucleotides to each strand
Nucleotides match up by the base pairing rule (C – G, A - T)
The end result is two identical strands, joined at a point called the centromere

21. DNA replication 2

22. Comparing mitosis and meiosis
Where it occurs
Why it occurs
Number of cells produced
Number of divisions
Number of chromosomes in daughter cells
Amount of variation in daughter cells

23. Comparing mitosis and meiosis
Where it occurs
Body cells
Gonads (reproductive organs)
Why it occurs
Cell repair, growth, asexual division
Sexual reproduction
Number of cells produced 2 4
Number of divisions 1
Number of chromosomes in daughter cells
Same as parent (diploid)
Half that of parent (haploid)
Amount of variation in daughter cells
None
Lots