1. INTRODUCTION TO SPATIAL ANALYSIS

2. Four fundamental functions of GIS fall under the manipulation and analysis component (Martin, 1991): 1.Reclassification operations 2.Overlay operations 3.Distance and connectivity measurements 4.Neighbourhood characterisation Will be discussed in the next chapter.

3. 1. Reclassification operations transform the attribute information associated with a single map coverage. E.g. allow the “cause-and-effect” of certain spatial factors be evaluated. E.g. * population densities classified into classes such as 'sparsely populated' or 'overcrowded' etc.) * soil types and farmland values * generalising land use pattern

4. MAP Example: the darker the more dense the state population

5. Re-classification Analysis - Association Between Land Value and Soil Types

6. URBAN RESIDENTIAL URBAN INDUSTRIAL RURAL FOREST RURAL AGRICULTURE URBAN RURAL ORIGINAL CLASSIFICATION GENERALIZED CLASSIFICATION classification provides new patterns/relationships

7. Classification (cont.) Classification: Land parcels for housing are classed into single storey terrace, double storey terrace and bungalow. Generalisation: single storey terrace, double storey terrace and bungalow are generalised under housing lots

8. 2. Overlay operations involve the combination of two or more maps according to boolean conditions and may result in the delineation of new boundaries of housing market

9. Ordnance Survey  Crown Copyright. All rights reserved An overlay of three layers of data

10. 3. Distance and connectivity measurements include both simple measures of inter-point distance and more complex operations such as the construction of zones of increasing transport cost away from specified locations. Distance measurement can be used to calculate straight line and network distance. Includes perimeter and area measurements…

11. MEASUREMENT DISTANCEPARAMETERAREA/SIZE A B C D XY 5 KM A- B = 20 = 40% B- C = 20 = 40% C - D= 10 = 20% 2 10 km

12. DISTANCE (STRAIGHT LINE) MEASUREMENT A- B: Alor Setar - Kuala Lumpur 360 KM B- C: Kuala Lumpur - Kuantan 270 KM TOTAL: 630 KM

13. 1470.998 1765.635 29.69 42.4 23.6 51.75 177.006 99.928 96.084 97.883 95.026 96.215 95.231 173.255 AREA MEASUREMENT

14. 4. Neighbourhood characterisation involves ascribing values to location according to characteristics of the surrounding region. Such operations may involve both summary and mean measures of a variable. This can be used to examine positive and negative spatial autocorrelation house price hedonic models.

15. Ordnance Survey  Crown Copyright. All rights reserved Neighbourhood analysis of mean selling prices within certain distance of a house

16. Anselin (1998) proposes that GIS functions can be classified as follows –Selection –Manipulation –Exploration –Confirmation Other View of GIS Functions

17. GIS functions Selection: involves boolean queries and spatial sampling. This seems similar to the overlay operations function. Manipulation: may be based on attribute data, map data, or integration of both, simultaneously. This means analysing data in an integrated manner where various data as available in the database can be combined in an analysis. Exploration: for investigation of spatial structure and involves description and visualisation. This is relevant to spatial autocorrelation analysis of hedonic models using geo-statistical method Confirmation: for modelling spatial association and/or autocorrelation. This is also more relevant to spatial autocorrelation analysis using geostatistical method.

18. DATA RECALL can be invoked on spatial and attribute components involves selective search no new objects created examples: * lots owned by foreigners * lots along the substation buffer

19. LOTS OWNED BY FOREIGNERS

20. CLASSIFICATION AND GENERALISATION classification - identify a set of characteristics to group together objects. in a vector system, classification involves addition of objects characteristics. in a raster system, classification involves converting or coding cell values. classification examples: Land parcels for housing are classed into single storey terras, double storey terras and bungalow. classification provides new patterns/relationships generalisation: single storey terrace, double storey terrace and bungalow are generalised under housing lots

21. Housing Age Legend Before 1900 1901-1930 1931-1950 1951 to 1999 Map showing classification of buildings according to age

22. URBAN RESIDENTIAL URBAN INDUSTRIAL RURAL FOREST RURAL AGRICULTURE URBAN RURAL ORIGINAL CLASSIFICATION GENERALIZED CLASSIFICATION

23. ... vector data –converting attribute values for polygon, line and point raster data –converting attribute values of group cell

24. MEASUREMENT measurement functions includes distance, parameter and area example: land parcels larger than 5 hectares example: shortest distance from KLCC to Pudu bas station

25. MEASUREMENT DISTANCEPARAMETERAREA/SIZE A B C D XY 5 KM A- B = 20 = 40% B- C = 20 = 40% C - D= 10 = 20% 2 10 km

26. DISTANCE MEASUREMENT A- B: Alor Setar - Kuala Lumpur 360 KM B- C: Kuala Lumpur - Kuantan 270 KM TOTAL: 630 KM

27. 1470.998 1765.635 29.69 42.4 23.6 51.75 177.006 99.928 96.084 97.883 95.026 96.215 95.231 173.255 AREA MEASUREMENT

28. ... MEASUREMENT vector data –area and parameter is obtained from coordinates of the polygon nodes –distance is derived from coordinates of starting/ending nodes –is more accurate than raster data

29. SEARCHING determine values against target object according to a neighbourhood characteristic three parameters need to be identified –targets –neighbourhood around the targets –applied neighbourhood function for resultant values example: total of households within 1 km of proposed shopping mall –target-shopping mall –neighborhood-in the radius of 1 km –function-total residential units

31. ... SPATIAL SEARCH operated as additional points in polygon, line in polygon and polygon in polygon vector data –point, line or polygon analysed with neighbourhood polygon using coordinate nodes –involves complex calculation with overlapping and out-of-boundary neighbourhood raster data –perform as overlay operations

32. NEIGHBOURHOOD represents ‘distance’ between map features ‘distance’ unit can be in measurement units or other units like travelling time, noise level, visibility distance etc. requires 4 parameters –target location - schools, highways, etc. –‘distance’ units - meter, dB, ppm, etc. –function for calculation on distance, perimeter, travel time –location to be analysed

33. ... NEIGHBOURHOOD used to generate buffer zones example: a 2km zone along a proposed transmission line alignment; zones exceeds 50dB around the airport neighbourhood is most often complex and involves data from various layers. For example, more than 50dB from noisy roads AND more than 1km from factories AND 15 minutes walking time AND...

34. R Buffering a Point eg. All area within one mile of a city Buffering a Line eg. All areas within 100 meters of a road Buffering an Area eg. All areas within 500 meters of a wetlands area.

35. Buffering

36. OVERLAY Involves two or more data layers Produces new layers Two types of overlay operation –arithmetic overlay –logical overlay Arithmetic overlay involves mathematics operation such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc.

37. MAP ALGEBRA (MULTIPLICATION) OVERLAY BY MULTIPLICATION DISTRICT 12 34 X CROP AREA 1 BB = 1 2 3 4 OVERLAY BY MAXIMUM VALUE 334 010 246 422 555 411 434 555 446 RAINFALL : RAINFALL: RAINFALL: 1980 1981 1980 - 1981 += OVERLAY

38. ... OVERLAY vector data are sometimes more efficient than raster data if data are not dense. –vector data - operation based on the selected data only –raster data - operation on all cells - even null values

39. Soil Type + Crops Production (ton/ha) Overlay Result GIS Technology: Relationship between Land use and Crop Productivity Overlay Analysis

40. Jalan Raja Alang Jalan Abdul Aziz Jalan Datuk Malik Jalan Hamzah Jalan Raja Uda Noise Zone Map

41. Sewerage pond Jalan Raja Alang Jalan Abdul Aziz Jalan Datuk Malik Jalan Hamzah Jalan Raja Uda Area Map For Areas Outside Sewerage Services

42. Jalan Raja Alang Jalan Abdul Aziz Jalan Hamzah Jalan Raja Uda Pan Malaysian Plastic Jalan Datuk Malik Industrial Buffer Zone Map