1. Chapter 4 Network Layer slides are modified from J. Kurose & K. Ross CPE 400 / 600 Computer Communication Networks Lecture 18

2. Network Layer 2 Chapter 4: Network Layer r 4. 1 Introduction r 4.2 Virtual circuit and datagram networks r 4.3 What’s inside a router r 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol  Datagram format, IPv4 addressing, ICMP, IPv6 r 4.5 Routing algorithms  Link state, Distance Vector, Hierarchical routing r 4.6 Routing in the Internet  RIP, OSPF, BGP r 4.7 Broadcast and multicast routing

3. Network Layer 3 u y x wv z 2 2 1 3 1 1 2 5 3 5 Graph: G = (N,E) N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z } E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) } cost could always be 1, or inversely related to bandwidth, or inversely related to congestion c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’) Graph abstraction Cost of path (x 1, x 2, x 3,…, x p ) = c(x 1,x 2 ) + c(x 2,x 3 ) + … + c(x p-1,x p )

4. Network Layer 4 A Link-State Routing Algorithm Dijkstra’s algorithm r net topology, link costs known to all nodes  accomplished via “link state broadcast”  all nodes have same info r computes least cost paths from one node (‘source”) to all other nodes  gives forwarding table for that node r iterative: after k iterations, know least cost path to k destinations Notation:  c(x,y): link cost from node x to y; = ∞ if not direct neighbors  D(v): current value of cost of path from source to dest. v  p(v): predecessor node along path from source to v  N': set of nodes whose least cost path definitively known

5. Network Layer 5 Dijsktra’s Algorithm 1 Initialization: 2 N' = {u} 3 for all nodes v 4 if v adjacent to u 5 then D(v) = c(u,v) 6 else D(v) = ∞ 7 8 Loop 9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum 10 add w to N' 11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' : 12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) ) 13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known 14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */ 15 until all nodes in N'

6. Network Layer 6 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example Step 0 1 2 3 4 5 N' u ux uxy uxyv uxyvw uxyvwz D(v),p(v) 2,u D(w),p(w) 5,u 4,x 3,y D(x),p(x) 1,u D(y),p(y) ∞ 2,x D(z),p(z) ∞ 4,y u y x wv z 2 2 1 3 1 1 2 5 3 5

7. Network Layer 7 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (2) u y x wv z Resulting shortest-path tree from u: v x y w z (u,v) (u,x) destination link Resulting forwarding table in u:

8. Network Layer 8 Lecture 18: Outline r 4.5 Routing algorithms  Link state  Distance Vector  Hierarchical routing r 4.6 Routing in the Internet  RIP  OSPF  BGP

9. Network Layer 9 Distance Vector Algorithm Bellman-Ford Equation (dynamic programming) Define d x (y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y Then d x (y) = min {c(x,v) + d v (y) } where min is taken over all neighbors v of x v

10. Network Layer 10 Bellman-Ford example u y x wv z 2 2 1 3 1 1 2 5 3 5 Clearly, d v (z) = 5, d x (z) = 3, d w (z) = 3 Node that achieves minimum is next hop in shortest path ➜ forwarding table d u (z) = min { c(u,v) + d v (z), c(u,x) + d x (z), c(u,w) + d w (z) } = min {2 + 5, 1 + 3, 5 + 3} = 4 B-F equation says:

11. Network Layer 11 Distance Vector Algorithm r D x (y) = estimate of least cost from x to y r Node x knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v) r Node x maintains distance vector D x = [D x (y): y є N ] r Node x also maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors  For each neighbor v, x maintains D v = [D v (y): y є N ] r From time-to-time, each node sends its own distance vector estimate to neighbors r When a node x receives new DV estimate from neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F equation:  Under minor, natural conditions, the estimate D x (y) converge to the actual least cost d x (y) D x (y) ← min v {c(x,v) + D v (y)} for each node y ∊ N

12. Network Layer 12 Distance Vector Algorithm Iterative, asynchronous: each local iteration caused by: r local link cost change r DV update message from neighbor Distributed: r each node notifies neighbors only when its DV changes  neighbors then notify their neighbors if necessary wait for (change in local link cost or msg from neighbor) recompute estimates if DV to any dest has changed, notify neighbors Each node:

13. Network Layer 13 x y z x y z 0 2 7 ∞∞∞ ∞∞∞ from cost to from x y z x y z 0 from cost to x y z x y z ∞∞ ∞∞∞ cost to x y z x y z ∞∞∞ 710 cost to ∞ 2 0 1 ∞ ∞ ∞ 2 0 1 7 1 0 time x z 1 2 7 y node x table node y table node z table D x (y) = min{c(x,y) + D y (y), c(x,z) + D z (y)} = min{2+0, 7+1} = 2 D x (z) = min{c(x,y) + D y (z), c(x,z) + D z (z)} = min{2+1, 7+0} = 3 32

14. Network Layer 14 x y z x y z 0 2 7 ∞∞∞ ∞∞∞ from cost to from x y z x y z 0 2 3 from cost to x y z x y z 0 2 3 from cost to x y z x y z ∞∞ ∞∞∞ cost to x y z x y z 0 2 7 from cost to x y z x y z 0 2 3 from cost to x y z x y z 0 2 3 from cost to x y z x y z 0 2 7 from cost to x y z x y z ∞∞∞ 710 cost to ∞ 2 0 1 ∞ ∞ ∞ 2 0 1 7 1 0 2 0 1 7 1 0 2 0 1 3 1 0 2 0 1 3 1 0 2 0 1 3 1 0 2 0 1 3 1 0 time x z 1 2 7 y node x table node y table node z table D x (y) = min{c(x,y) + D y (y), c(x,z) + D z (y)} = min{2+0, 7+1} = 2 D x (z) = min{c(x,y) + D y (z), c(x,z) + D z (z)} = min{2+1, 7+0} = 3

15. Network Layer 15 Distance Vector: link cost changes Link cost changes: r node detects local link cost change r updates routing info, recalculates distance vector r if DV changes, notify neighbors “good news travels fast” x z 1 4 50 y 1 At time t 0, y detects the link-cost change, updates its DV, and informs its neighbors. At time t 1, z receives the update from y and updates its table. It computes a new least cost to x and sends its neighbors its DV. At time t 2, y receives z’s update and updates its distance table. y’s least costs do not change and hence y does not send any message to z.

16. Network Layer 16 Distance Vector: link cost changes Link cost changes: r good news travels fast r bad news travels slow - “count to infinity” problem! r 44 iterations before algorithm stabilizes Poisoned reverse: r If Z routes through Y to get to X : m Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is infinite (so Y won’t route to X via Z) r will this completely solve count to infinity problem? x z 1 4 50 y 60

17. Network Layer 17 Comparison of LS and DV algorithms Message complexity r LS: with n nodes, E links, O(nE) msgs sent r DV: exchange between neighbors only  convergence time varies Speed of Convergence r LS: O(n 2 ) algorithm requires O(nE) msgs  may have oscillations r DV: convergence time varies  may be routing loops  count-to-infinity problem Robustness: what happens if router malfunctions? LS: node can advertise incorrect link cost  each node computes only its own table DV: node can advertise incorrect path cost  each node’s table used by others error propagate thru network

18. Network Layer 18 Lecture 18: Outline r 4.5 Routing algorithms  Link state  Distance Vector  Hierarchical routing r 4.6 Routing in the Internet  RIP  OSPF  BGP

19. Network Layer 19 Hierarchical Routing Our routing study thus far - idealization r all routers identical r network “flat” … not true in practice scale: with 200 million destinations: r can’t store all dest’s in routing tables! r routing table exchange would swamp links! administrative autonomy r internet = network of networks r each network admin may want to control routing in its own network

20. Network Layer 20 Hierarchical Routing r aggregate routers into regions, “autonomous systems” (AS) r routers in same AS run same routing protocol  “intra-AS” routing protocol  routers in different AS can run different intra-AS routing protocol Gateway router r Direct link to router in another AS

21. Network Layer 21 3b 1d 3a 1c 2a AS3 AS1 AS2 1a 2c 2b 1b Intra-AS Routing algorithm Inter-AS Routing algorithm Forwarding table 3c Interconnected ASes r forwarding table configured by both intra- and inter-AS routing algorithm  intra-AS sets entries for internal dests  inter-AS & intra-As sets entries for external dests

22. Network Layer 22 3b 1d 3a 1c 2a AS3 AS1 AS2 1a 2c 2b 1b 3c Inter-AS tasks r suppose router in AS1 receives datagram destined outside of AS1:  router should forward packet to gateway router, but which one? AS1 must: 1. learn which dests are reachable through AS2, which through AS3 2. propagate this reachability info to all routers in AS1 Job of inter-AS routing!

23. Network Layer 23 Example: Setting forwarding table in router 1d r suppose AS1 learns (via inter-AS protocol) that subnet x reachable via AS3 (gateway 1c) but not via AS2. r inter-AS protocol propagates reachability info to all internal routers. r router 1d determines from intra-AS routing info that its interface I is on the least cost path to 1c.  installs forwarding table entry (x,I) 3b 1d 3a 1c 2a AS3 AS1 AS2 1a 2c 2b 1b 3c x …

24. Network Layer 24 Example: Choosing among multiple ASes r now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2. r to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine towards which gateway it should forward packets for dest x.  this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol! 3b 1d 3a 1c 2a AS3 AS1 AS2 1a 2c 2b 1b 3c x … …

25. Network Layer 25 Learn from inter-AS protocol that subnet x is reachable via multiple gateways Use routing info from intra-AS protocol to determine costs of least-cost paths to each of the gateways Hot potato routing: Choose the gateway that has the smallest least cost Determine from forwarding table the interface I that leads to least-cost gateway. Enter (x,I) in forwarding table Example: Choosing among multiple ASes r now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2. r to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine towards which gateway it should forward packets for dest x.  this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol! r hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of two routers.

26. Network Layer 26 Lecture 18: Outline r 4.5 Routing algorithms  Link state  Distance Vector  Hierarchical routing r 4.6 Routing in the Internet  RIP  OSPF  BGP

27. Network Layer 27 Intra-AS Routing r also known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP) r most common Intra-AS routing protocols:  RIP: Routing Information Protocol  OSPF: Open Shortest Path First  IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco proprietary)

28. Network Layer 28 RIP ( Routing Information Protocol) r distance vector algorithm r included in BSD-UNIX Distribution in 1982 r distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops) D C BA u v w x y z destination hops u 1 v 2 w 2 x 3 y 3 z 2 From router A to subnets:

29. Network Layer 29 RIP advertisements r distance vectors: exchanged among neighbors every 30 sec via Response Message (also called advertisement) r each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination subnets within AS

30. Network Layer 30 RIP: Example Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest. wA2 yB2 zB7 x--1 ….…..... w xy z A C D B Routing/Forwarding table in D

31. Network Layer 31 RIP: Example Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest. wA2 yB2 zB A7 5 x--1 ….…..... Routing/Forwarding table in D w xy z A C D B Dest Next hops w - 1 x - 1 z C 4 …. …... Advertisement from A to D

32. Network Layer 32 RIP: Link Failure and Recovery If no advertisement heard after 180 sec --> neighbor/link declared dead  routes via neighbor invalidated  new advertisements sent to neighbors  neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if tables changed)  link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net  poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops (infinite distance = 16 hops)

33. Network Layer 33 RIP Table processing r RIP routing tables managed by application-level process called route-d (daemon) r advertisements sent in UDP packets, periodically repeated physical link network forwarding (IP) table Transprt (UDP) routed physical link network (IP) Transprt (UDP) routed forwarding table

34. Network Layer 34 Lecture 18: Outline r 4.5 Routing algorithms  Link state  Distance Vector  Hierarchical routing r 4.6 Routing in the Internet  RIP  OSPF  BGP

35. Network Layer 35 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) r “open”: publicly available r uses Link State algorithm  LS packet dissemination  topology map at each node  route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm r OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor router r advertisements disseminated to entire AS (via flooding)  carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than TCP or UDP

36. Network Layer 36 OSPF “advanced” features (not in RIP) r security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to prevent malicious intrusion) r multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in RIP) r For each link, multiple cost metrics for different TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set “low” for best effort; high for real time) r integrated uni- and multicast support:  Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data base as OSPF r hierarchical OSPF in large domains.

37. Network Layer 37 Hierarchical OSPF

38. Network Layer 38 Hierarchical OSPF r two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.  Link-state advertisements only in area  each nodes has detailed area topology; only know direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas. r area border routers: “summarize” distances to nets in own area, advertise to other Area Border routers. r backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to backbone. r boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

39. Network Layer 39 Lecture 18: Summary r Routing algorithms  Link state  Distance Vector  Hierarchical routing r Routing in the Internet  RIP  OSPF