1. Anthropological Theory Part I

2. 2 Paradigm Change Thomas Khun: Thomas Khun: Scientific thought is the result of a series of revolutions or Scientific thought is the result of a series of revolutions or “paradigm changes” A Paradigm: sums up the scientific views about what should be the object of research & how to go about solving scientific problems A Paradigm: sums up the scientific views about what should be the object of research & how to go about solving scientific problems

3. 3 Normal Science The formulation of a paradigm is followed by a period of normal science, governed by the paradigm The formulation of a paradigm is followed by a period of normal science, governed by the paradigm Thus, anthropological ideas at any given time are reflection of the cultural environment of the anthropologists Thus, anthropological ideas at any given time are reflection of the cultural environment of the anthropologists The history of anthropology is a history of the values of the Western world The history of anthropology is a history of the values of the Western world

4. 4 What’s the Point? To understand how current biases influence the way anthropologists have interpreted the cultures they study To understand how current biases influence the way anthropologists have interpreted the cultures they study Ask yourself how the cultures you study reflect the researcher’s bias Ask yourself how the cultures you study reflect the researcher’s bias Ask what questions are not being asked because of the current paradigm Ask what questions are not being asked because of the current paradigm

5. 5 Read & Think Critically ! Anthropology has gone through a number of paradigm changes Anthropology has gone through a number of paradigm changes We will begin with a brief history of the discipline We will begin with a brief history of the discipline Know this background & understand the different theories as they apply to the cultures you study Know this background & understand the different theories as they apply to the cultures you study

6. 6 A Prelude The 16 th Century: The 16 th Century: Age of Discovery Age of Discovery “Mercantilism” “Mercantilism” European World View – chosen by God European World View – chosen by God Thomas Hobbes – the lives of savages are “nasty, brutish, & short” Thomas Hobbes – the lives of savages are “nasty, brutish, & short”

7. 7 Enlightenment 18 th Century: 18 th Century: All people capable of progress All people capable of progress toward civilization “The Noble Savage” “The Noble Savage” 1800 Society for the Observation 1800 Society for the Observation of Man of Man Comparative anatomy Comparative anatomy Comparative Languages Comparative Languages Museum of Comparative Ethnography Museum of Comparative Ethnography

8. 8 Context for Unilineal Evolution 19 th Century: 19 th Century: 1855 Berlin Conference 1855 Berlin Conference Colonialism – economic & political domination Colonialism – economic & political domination Transfer of wealth to Europe Transfer of wealth to Europe Increasing Racism Increasing Racism

9. 9 Religion 3 Orientations 3 Orientations Polygenists: Separate creations Polygenists: Separate creations Races are distinct species Races are distinct species Craniometry Craniometry Monogenists: One creation Monogenists: One creation Biblical interpretation Biblical interpretation All races with ability to progress All races with ability to progress “White Man’s Burden” “White Man’s Burden” Degeneration: Regression after single creation Degeneration: Regression after single creation

10. 10 Polygenists: Separate Creations Can’t Achieve Civilization

11. 11 Monogenists: Capable of Advancement

12. 12 Degenerationists Punishment for Falling from Perfection

13. 13 Charles Darwin 1859 – Origin of Species 1859 – Origin of Species Natural Selection Natural Selection Biological Evolution & Biological Evolution & dissatisfaction with biblical version of creation Yet Polygenist-Monogenist debate continued through the 19 th Century Yet Polygenist-Monogenist debate continued through the 19 th Century

14. 14 Herbert Spencer “Survival of the Fittest” “Survival of the Fittest” Social Darwinism Social Darwinism Biological explanation of Biological explanation of cultural differences Evolution of mental capacity Evolution of mental capacity European society became the standard by which “primitive” societies were judged to be inferior European society became the standard by which “primitive” societies were judged to be inferior “Primitive Man” = savage, small brain, dark skin “Primitive Man” = savage, small brain, dark skin

15. 15 Paradigm I. Unilineal Evolution 19 th Century Concept of Cultural Evolution 19 th Century Concept of Cultural Evolution The process by which new cultural forms emerge out of older ones The process by which new cultural forms emerge out of older ones Each Society is believed to PROGRESS through the same stages of development, from SAVAGERY to BARBARISM to CIVILIZATION Each Society is believed to PROGRESS through the same stages of development, from SAVAGERY to BARBARISM to CIVILIZATION Only Europeans had reached civilization Only Europeans had reached civilization

16. 16 Civilization Barbarism BarbarismSavagery P R O G R E S S

17. 17 Basis for Unilineal Evolution Materialist approach Materialist approach Application of biological evolution to culture Application of biological evolution to culture Interest in general laws, not history Interest in general laws, not history Comparative method Comparative method Ranking of societies on a scale of progress Ranking of societies on a scale of progress Armchair anthropologists Armchair anthropologists

18. 18 #1 Edward B. Tylor Founding father of anthropology Founding father of anthropology 1896 1 st professor of anthropology 1896 1 st professor of anthropology 1 st to use “Culture” as a synonym for civilization 1 st to use “Culture” as a synonym for civilization “Culture, or Civilization, “Culture, or Civilization, is that complex whole…” Animism: belief in spirits Animism: belief in spirits Animism polytheism monotheism Animism polytheism monotheism

19. 19 #2 Lewis Henry Morgan 1851 – League of the Iroquois 1851 – League of the Iroquois Ethnical Periods Ethnical Periods “An attempt will be made to bring forward evidence of the rudeness of the early condition of mankind, of the gradual evolution of their mental & moral powers & of their protracted struggle while winning their way to civilization. The principle tribes of mankind can be classified, according to the degree of their relative PROGRESS, into conditions which can be recognized as distinct.

20. 20 What are the key factors? What are the key factors? Human society evolved through 3 major stages, each marked by a techno- logical break- through Human society evolved through 3 major stages, each marked by a techno- logical break- through

21. 21 Strengths & Weaknesses: Strengths: Strengths: Created a science of humans Created a science of humans New concepts, methods New concepts, methods Comparative approach—analyzed range of human variability Comparative approach—analyzed range of human variability Developed systems of classification Developed systems of classification Morgan: holistic approach Morgan: holistic approach Weaknesses: Weaknesses: Racial determinists, ethnocentric ranking on a scale of progress Racial determinists, ethnocentric ranking on a scale of progress Biological determinism (reductionist) Biological determinism (reductionist) Ignored history & environment Ignored history & environment Justified political & economic domination (colonial context) Justified political & economic domination (colonial context)

22. 22 Native Peoples Were… Subjugated Subjugated Exploited Exploited Oppressed Oppressed Objects of Genocide & Ethnocide Objects of Genocide & Ethnocide --All in the name of PROGRESS --All in the name of PROGRESS How would evolutionists have written a book on Nisa’s culture? How would evolutionists have written a book on Nisa’s culture?

23. 23 Paradigm II. Historical Particularism Early 20 th C. paradigm change Early 20 th C. paradigm change Professionalization of anthropology Professionalization of anthropology Represents a reaction against unilineal evolution Represents a reaction against unilineal evolution Division between British & American anthropology Division between British & American anthropology Omnibus approach Omnibus approach

24. 24 Franz Boas Born a German Jew Born a German Jew Father of American Father of AmericanAnthropology 1888 founded 1 st anthropology 1888 founded 1 st anthropology department in the U.S. Natural scientist Natural scientist 1883 expedition to Baffinland, Inuit 1883 expedition to Baffinland, Inuit Conversion—became ethnographer Conversion—became ethnographer Concern with disappearance of Native American cultures Concern with disappearance of Native American cultures Cultural Relativism Cultural Relativism

25. 25 Boas’ Activism Critique of German Nazism Critique of German Nazism Fought against racism Fought against racism Differences are due to culture, not race Differences are due to culture, not race Critique of unilineal evolution: Critique of unilineal evolution: “The history of human civilization does not appear as determined entirely by a uniform evolution the world over. Rather each group has its own UNIQUE HISTORY. It would be quite impossible to understand, on the basis of a single evolutionary scheme, what happened to any PARTICULAR PEOPLE”

26. 26 Assumptions of Historical Particularism: Rejects general laws, ranking on a scale, progress Rejects general laws, ranking on a scale, progress There are no simple or complex societies, only different societies There are no simple or complex societies, only different societies Unilineal evolution is based on speculation, is ethnocentric Unilineal evolution is based on speculation, is ethnocentric Not Culture, but cultures Not Culture, but cultures Culture, not race, determines behavior Culture, not race, determines behavior Methodological rigor Methodological rigor

27. 27 Culture Areas

28. 28 Strengths & Weaknesses Strengths: Strengths: Cultural Relativism Cultural Relativism History History Relation of culture & environment Relation of culture & environment Fieldwork Fieldwork Weaknesses: Weaknesses: Ecclectic approach Ecclectic approach Avoidance of synthesis Avoidance of synthesis Weak on theory Weak on theory

29. 29 Paradigm III. Culture & Personality 1930-50s – Students of Boas 1930-50s – Students of Boas Borrowed from psychology Borrowed from psychology Focus on the individual as the bearer of culture Focus on the individual as the bearer of culture Idealist approach: Idealist approach: interest in personality & how individuals thought, felt Studied process of enculturation, especially child development Studied process of enculturation, especially child development

30. 30 2 related approaches: 2 related approaches: Intra-cultural variation Intra-cultural variation Inter-cultural variation Inter-cultural variation Studied individuals Studied individuals cultural patterns of individual societies cross-cultural comparisons to arrive at generalizations This is Shostak’s approach in Nisa This is Shostak’s approach in Nisa

31. 31 #1 – Ruth Benedict 1923 1 st woman professor of anthropology 1923 1 st woman professor of anthropology Child rearing molds personalities to a basic type Child rearing molds personalities to a basic type Each culture develops Each culture develops a limited number of themes a limited number of themes – cultural configurations – that dominate the thought & behavior of its members Each culture selectively chooses among an infinite number of traits Each culture selectively chooses among an infinite number of traits

32. 32 Benedict’s Comparative Approach Kwakiutl = individualistic, competitive, intemperate, egoistic Kwakiutl = individualistic, competitive, intemperate, egoistic Potlatch: Give away enormous Potlatch: Give away enormous quantities of goods, complete with rival groups “Dionysian” (Greek god of excess) “Dionysian” (Greek god of excess) Zuñi = control their emotions, value sobriety & inoffensiveness, do not boast, restrained behavior, cooperative Zuñi = control their emotions, value sobriety & inoffensiveness, do not boast, restrained behavior, cooperative “Apollonian” (Greek god Apollo) “Apollonian” (Greek god Apollo)

33. 33 Overgeneralizations Overgeneralizations Cora Dubois – Rorschach tests Cora Dubois – Rorschach tests 37% fit modal personality 37% fit modal personality 22% fall outside the modal personality 22% fall outside the modal personality 40% are “deviant” 40% are “deviant” Benedict: The Chrysanthemum Benedict: The Chrysanthemum & the Sword & the Sword

34. 34 #2 – Margaret Mead 1928 Coming of Age in Samoa 1928 Coming of Age in Samoa Enculturation & its effect on puberty Enculturation & its effect on puberty Nature-nurture debate Nature-nurture debate Psychological changes of puberty are not biologically, but culturally conditioned Psychological changes of puberty are not biologically, but culturally conditioned Samoa – Sexual liaisons, no Samoa – Sexual liaisons, no stigma for out-of-wedlock births Comparison with U.S. society Comparison with U.S. society

35. 35 Derek Freeman: 1983, Margaret Mead & Samoa: The Making & Unmaking of an Anthropological Myth Derek Freeman: 1983, Margaret Mead & Samoa: The Making & Unmaking of an Anthropological Myth Rather than the carefree adolescent sexual experimentation Mead described, Samoans have a “virginity complex” Rather than the carefree adolescent sexual experimentation Mead described, Samoans have a “virginity complex” How to explain these different interpretations? How to explain these different interpretations?

36. 36 Mead’s Sex & Temperament AGGRESSIVEPASSIVE U.S. ARAPESH MUNDUGAMOR TCHAMBULI

37. 37 Mead’s Sex & Temperament AGGRESSIVEPASSIVE U.S.♂♀ ARAPESH MUNDUGAMOR TCHAMBULI

38. 38 Mead’s Sex & Temperament AGGRESSIVEPASSIVE U.S.♂♀ ARAPESH ♂ ♀ MUNDUGAMOR TCHAMBULI

39. 39 Mead’s Sex & Temperament AGGRESSIVEPASSIVE U.S.♂♀ ARAPESH ♂ ♀ MUNDUGAMOR TCHAMBULI

40. 40 Mead’s Sex & Temperament AGGRESSIVEPASSIVE U.S.♂♀ ARAPESH ♂ ♀ MUNDUGAMOR TCHAMBULI♀♂

41. 41 “Man made for himself a fabric of culture within which each human life was dignified by form & meaning. Each people makes this fabric differently, selects some clues & ignores others, emphasizes a different sector of the whole arc of human potentialities, as each culture creates distinctively the social fabric in which the human spirit can wrap itself—it may bend every individual born within it to one type of behavior” “Man made for himself a fabric of culture within which each human life was dignified by form & meaning. Each people makes this fabric differently, selects some clues & ignores others, emphasizes a different sector of the whole arc of human potentialities, as each culture creates distinctively the social fabric in which the human spirit can wrap itself—it may bend every individual born within it to one type of behavior”

42. 42 Strengths & Weaknesses Strengths: Strengths: Popularized anthropology Popularized anthropology Focus on culture as a system of meaning Focus on culture as a system of meaning Attention to variation among societies Attention to variation among societies Attention to the individual as a bearer of culture Attention to the individual as a bearer of culture Weaknesses: Weaknesses: Broad, impressionistic generalizations based on personal impressions Broad, impressionistic generalizations based on personal impressions Lack of history Lack of history Stereotyping—national character studies Stereotyping—national character studies Political implications Political implications