1. Metode Pemecahan Masalah 1 Session 1: Metode Pemecahan Masalah 1 Seminar e-Bisnis Program Studi Manajemen Universitas Bina Nusantara

2. Problem Solving Method The problem-solving method that will be used in the following discussion consists of four basic steps: FIND OUT Look at the problem. Have you seen a similar problem before? If so, how is this problem similar? How is it different? What facts do you have? What do you know that is not stated in the problem?

3. Problem Solving Method (2) CHOOSE A STRATEGY How have you solved similar problems in the past? What strategies do you know? Try a strategy that seems as if it will work. If it doesn't, it may lead you to one that will.

4. Problem Solving Method (3) SOLVE IT Use the strategy you selected and work the problem. LOOK BACK Reread the question. Did you answer the question asked? Is your answer in the correct units? Does your answer seem reasonable?

5. Soft Systems Methodology Checkland's "soft systems methodology" is a response to difficulty in applying the approach of hard systems (engineering) thinking to business problems. Hard systems engineering tends to emphasise: –measurable system objectives –top down decomposition of systems into sub-sytems.

6. Soft Systems Methodology (2) Advanced systems engineering may show systems with unexpected and counter-intuitive behaviour and complex feedback loops between components but, systems engineering when applied to "human systems" leads to problems. –Organisation goals may be in dispute. It is wrong to assume that all organisational members accept the views and goals of top management. –Formal methods usually begin with a problem statement but - fixing the problem too early tends to hide problems. –The method itself can restrict what will be elicited - conclusions will reflect methods and starting positions.

7. Soft Systems Methodology (3) In principle, an SSM project is done by the people of the organisation, with a consultant-facilitator. It covers: –Problem situation –Analysis –Root definition of Relevant Systems –Conceptualisation –Comparison –Definition –Selection –Design –Implementation

8. CATWOE Analysis Part of the problem expression is identifying the parties involved. Checkland uses mnemonic CATWOE to describe the human activity and =situation. What is CATWOE? –Clients (those who more or less directly benefit - customers - or suffer) from the machinations of the... –Actors - the players, who perform the scenes, read and interpret the script and improvise. Who are the local and institutional actors.... who undertake the..... –Transformations.... what transformations, movements, conversions of X take place? What is the nature of the transformations? What is the content and process of transformation from ingredients to a sandwich, from mixed, varied data to information, from an idea to a performance concept or marketable product etc?

9. CATWOE Analysis (2) Weltanschauung or world-view.... what is going on in the wider world that is influencing and shaping the system and need for the system to adapt? Owners - the activity is ultimately "controlled" or paid for by by the owners and it occurs within an Environment - the political, legal, economic, social, demographic, technological, ethical, competitive, natural environment...... –NB: some categories (actor, client, owner, environment) may overlap. CATWOE analysis helps in working out a "root definition" and expressing the domain of the problem. Avoid early conclusions about who and what is "important".

10. Transformation Example Checkland offers the case of an aircraft landing system. The transformation involves getting the incoming aircraft from a height and a distance safely on the runway. The actors woul be the pilots (human and auto), the clients would be the passengers and crew, the owners the owners of the airline, and the environment: the air traffic controllers, air lanes, traffic conditions and geographic features. The weltanschauung may involve competition between international airports, the airport-housing environment, high concern for safety and high technology operations.

11. Rich Picture Diagrams Checkland tends to describe his systems with diagrams or "rich pictures" - a diagram "without rules". Rich pictures have some distinguishing features. They show –the people involved –their stated purposes –their desires and fears (usually in think bubbles). –more environmental detail than most diagrams (human activities, like processes, cross organisational boundaries). –how interests agree or conflict. Rich pictures are cartoons - they can be funny, sad, political... and all at once.

12. The Process View Using CATWOE in an analysis exercise and drawing a rich picture focuses attention on a process view. SSM targets existing systems and Checkland encourages investigation and definition of existing organisation features and how these interact with the process. Consider too the "climate" of the organisation (efficient, sloppy, democratic, sulky, joyous...?). After the problem examination and definition stage SSM participants "should" be able to see the organisation differently, more fully and to different levels and sub- problems of problems. They will have "facts" and viewpoints at varying levels of detail - many "problem" statements, some major and some trivial. (Which are which?)

13. Root Definition The analysts now need to define what it is all about. What is the arena of concern - lets synthesis the "root definition" - a well- defined statement about the area of activity and its components. This is for internal use creative use not public dissemination. It may represent a minimum that can be agreed in terms of a description of the real activity domain. People should be able to see what they are agreeing to and what has been left out. Examples? To be completed. A root definition defines both what is agreed and what is still unresolved and other associated things. A root definition for which there is a consensus - at a point in time..... is an important outcome of the SSM process.

14. Conceptual Modelling Having arrived at a root definition and a CATWOE rich picture - the analysts can now turn attention to their imagined, "ideal" system. Creativity and solution generation time is here.... exploring –the wild and fanciful –defining the musts and the desirables –evaluating and choosing –criteria for choosing - decisions - if a "best" model is found - criteria maybe implicit.... but be clear about criteria!