1. The role of intent: "Disparate treatment... is the most easily understood type of discrimination. The employer simply treats some people less favorably than others because of their race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Proof of discriminatory motive is critical, although it can in some situations be inferred from the mere fact of differences in treatment.” Teamsters v. United States 431 U.S. 324, 335- 36 (1977) ~ Basics of Disparate Treatment ~ [Likely the most apparent form of discrimination outlawed by Title VII; to NOT use protected group status in making personnel decisions] >>> Direct and indirect (circumstantial) evidence is allowable From Sweeney v. Keene St. College (1978): The Supreme Court has never said that an individual plaintiff seeking to establish a claim of disparate treatment in violation of Title VII must present direct evidence of discriminatory intent. Even in Washington v. Davis, which held that discriminatory intent is an essential element of a claim based upon the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, the Supreme Court recognized that circumstantial evidence was one means of proving purposeful discrimination.

2. *Direct: that which shows, without inference, the existence of the fact in question [Decision-maker statement: “I fired him because he was Black”] Supervisor remark soon before he denied a female a promotion she said she had been promised: “f --- ing women, I hate f --- ing women in the office” [Heim v. Utah, 1993]. Not considered as direct evidence Direct Versus Indirect Evidence [Direct and indirect evidence does not involve the quality of the evidence, but how it issued] *Relatively uncommon (UAW v. Johnson Controls). Circumstantial: Organization’s forte is in its management who are “mostly young, well educated....” The company was “young, mean, and lean” The challenger ought to retire The challenger should have foreseen his firing when a younger person was hired >>> Comments made by the organization’s president (who was involved in the decision to fire the challenger. Circumstantial evidence that is directly tied to an adverse decision [Radabaugh v. Zipp Feed Mills, 1993 --- evidence of unlawful intent)

3. Step 1: Challenger must establish a prima facie case Step 2: The company must articulate that a legitimate, nondiscriminatory reason exists for the rejection of the challenger Step 3: The challenger must prove that the organization's reason for their rejection is a pretext for discrimination ~ Disparate Treatment Process ~

4. McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green (1973) 1)Belong to a racial minority 2)Apply and be qualified for the job in which the employer was seeking applications 3) Be rejected for the job in question despite being qualified 4) After being rejected, the position must remain open and the company has to continue to seek applicants from person’s of the complainant’s qualifications Challenger Burden (Step 1): To establish a prima facie case of racial discrimination, a complainant must: >>> Green was Black >>> Green applied for a mechanic position and his past work for the company was “satisfactory” >>> Green was not hired >>> Company continued hiring applicants

5. ~ Application Requirement ~ Futile Act Doctrine: If a company has a longstanding practice of not hiring minorities From Teamsters: If an employer should announce his policy of discrimination by a sign reading "Whites Only" on the hiring-office door, his victims would not be limited to the few who ignored the sign and subjected themselves to personal rebuffs. The same message can be communicated to potential applicants more subtly but just as clearly by an employer's actual practices - by his consistent discriminatory treatment of actual applicants, by the manner in which he publicizes vacancies, his recruitment techniques, his responses to casual or tentative inquiries, and even by the racial or ethnic composition of that part of his work force from which he has discriminatorily excluded members of minority groups

6. ~ Qualification Issue ~ Absolute: The plaintiff possesses minimum qualifications for the job (e.g., based on a job description) Relative: The plaintiff’s qualifications compare favorably to others considered for the position (e.g., plaintiff must prove that he/she was most qualified for the job) From Teamsters v. U.S. (footnote 44): The plaintiff must prove that her rejection for a given job was not the result of “an absolute or relative lack of qualifications.”Teamsters v. U.S.

7. The employer needs to only “articulate some legitimate, nondiscriminatory reason for the employee’s rejection” Disparate Treatment Company Defense (Step 2 ) >>> Company stated that Green was rejected because of his participation in an illegal “stall-in and “lock-in” against the organization

8. Challenger Can Demonstrate Pretext (Step 3) “... the plaintiff must then have an opportunity to prove by a preponderance of the evidence that the legitimate reason offered by the defendant were not its true reasons but were a pretext for discrimination.” How might this be done (with what information)? Company’s treatment of challenger during his prior employment (e.g., to his legal civil rights conduct) Organization’s policies/practices regarding minority employment (e.g., prior evidence of a pattern of discrimination – statistics) Evidence that Whites involved in the illegal activities were hired

9. Furnco Construction v. Waters (1978) Brief Facts: No permanent workforce at company; staffing done per job. In this case, hiring done based on those individuals known to be qualified and by recommendations. No applications were accepted at company site. Race discrimination suit filed when black applicants were not hired District Court. --- No evidence for discrimination under Green Ct. Appeals --- Prima facie case made; Co. was guilty of discrimination allegations History of racial discrimination; rejected as legitimate the need for supervisor to select those whose ability was known to him Supreme Court Decision in Furnco Critical comment: “The burden which shifts to the employer is merely that of proving that he based his employment decision on a legitimate consideration, and not an illegitimate one such as race”

10. Texas Department of Community Affairs v. Burdine (1981) Brief Facts: District Ct. --- No gender bias in promotion decision; Evidence based on testimony from supervisor that: Not as qualified as person promoted Did not work well with some others Court of Appeals: --- 1) Company needs to prove the use of a non-discriminatory reason with a preponderance of evidence 2) Objective evidence must be presented that the person hired/promoted possessed the highest qualifications “... to satisfy this burden, the defendant “must prove that those he hired... were somehow better qualified than was plaintiff, in other words, comparative evidence is needed.”

11. Supreme Court Decision in Burdine 1) Defendant burden is one of production/articulation (not persuasion) We have stated consistently that the employee’s prima facie case... will be rebutted if the employer articulates lawful reasons for the action,... the employer need only produce admissible evidence which would allow the trier of fact rationally to conclude that the employment decision had not been motivated by discriminatory animus... the defendant’s explanation of its legitimate reasons must be clear and reasonably specific

12. Supreme Court Decision in Burdine (cont.) 2)Defendant does not have to prove that the plaintiff’s qualifications are less the the person The views of the Court of Appeals can be read... as requiring the employer to hire the minority or female applicant whenever that person’s objective qualifications were equal to those of a white male applicant. But Title VII does not obligate an employer to accord this preference 3) Plaintiff must show direct or indirect evidence that the defendant’s reason(s) were a pretext for discrimination

13. St. Mary’s Honor Center v. Hicks (1993 ) Brief Facts: After reorganization, Hicks received several disciplinary actions from his new supervisor (before his performance was satisfactory). He was suspended (and later fired) for rules violations by his subordinates, failing to inadequately investigate a brawl between inmates, not ensuring his subordinates entered vehicle use in log book, arguing and threating his supervisor Hicks filed a race discrimination suit alleging disparate treatment District Ct. decided in favor of St. Marys Court of Appeals reversed this decision

14. Court of Appeals Decision in Hicks >>> Reasons given by the organization were NOT the true factors in the termination decision. (e.g., Hicks was the only supervisor disciplined for acts of his subordinates, similar/more serious violations by co-workers was ignored or treated lightly, and Hick’s supervisor began the verbal argument to provoke Hicks) Consequently, they decided that since the company was unsuccessful defending its use of legitimate factors, the company was guilty of race discrimination “Because the defendants’ proffered reasons were discredited, defendants were in a position of having offered no legitimate reason for their actions.... offering no rebuttal to an established inference that they had unlawfully discriminated against plaintiff on the basis of his race.”

15. ~ Supreme Court Decision in Hicks ~ >>> Company did offer (produce) non-discriminatory evidence for its decision. It meet it burden under the Burdine framework. >>> Challenger must not only show pretext, but that the reasons were a pretext for discrimination “... should the defendant carry this burden, the plaintiff must then have an opportunity to prove by a preponderance of the evidence that the legitimate reasons offered by the defendant were not its true reasons but were a pretext for discrimination.” [From Burdine]

16. Reeves v. Sanderson Plumbing (2000) Reeves (age 57) fired for alleged poor work performance District Court ruled in favor of Reeves Court of Appeals reversed >>> Pretext may exist regarding the reasons offered by the organization; but not sufficient evidence of age discrimination

17. Alleged problems with Reeves performance: 1) Poor recordkeeping (cost company $$$) 2) Misrepresentations of records 3) Failure to record absences and hours worked by subordinates (especially important given presence of union and costs for grievances/arbitration) 4) Failure to discipline subordinates Reeves showed evidence that records were properly maintained; time clock malfunctioned and he wrote the actual arrival time on time cards; company never calculated the dollar loss allegedly caused by Reeves Disciplinary decisions were the responsibility another supervisor There had never been a union grievance or complaint about recordkeeping No evidence of falsifying records introduced

18. >>> Age-related remarks made by the person who was the decision-making regarding his firing (e.g., “was so old that he must have come over on the Mayflower,” “was too damn old to do his job.” >>> Another supervisor (age 33) with the same production efficiency levels as Reeves, was not fired Additional Evidence by Reeves

19.  Age-based remarks not made in the context of the decision to fire Reeves  No evidence that others who recommended Reeves be fired were motivated by age  Two other decision-makers involved in Reeves’ firing were over age 50  All three Hinge Room supervisors were accused of poor recordkeeping  Several supervisory positions were filled by those over 50 years old Company Defense

20. Court of Appeals erred in limiting evidence after Step 2 to the age- related remarks, and not considering the facts of the case as a whole. “... the court must review the record taken as a whole.” “... the court should review all of the evidence in the record Challenge’s burden is to demonstrate: “that the stated reasons were not the real reasons for [petitioner’s] discharge; “that age discrimination was the real reason for [petitioner’s] discharge.” Given that petitioner established a prima facie case of discrimination, introduced enough evidence for the jury to reject respondent’s explanation, and produced additional evidence of age-based animus, there was sufficient evidence for the jury to find that respondent had intentionally discriminated. Supreme Court Decision in Reeves

21. McDonnell-Douglas v. Green: >>> Developed 3-step process for disparate treatment claims Furnco v. Waters: >>> Establishing a pioma facie case does NOT equal a finding of discrimination >>> No requirement to use a process that attracts the most minority members >>> Use of statistics (representation) may be used to show motive Disparate Treatment Case Summary

22. Texas v. Burdine: >>> Company required to produce evidence of legitimate reasons (not prove them) >>> Objective evidence is not required to document that most qualified person was hired/promoted St, Mary’s v. Hicks: >>> Demonstration of pretext by challenger is NOT enough; evidence that the offered reasons were a pretext for discrimination is required Reeves v. Sanderson Plumbing: >>> Evidence in addition to that offered in establishing a prima face case should be considered (the record as a whole) Disparate Treatment Case Summary (cont.)

23. ~ Mixed-Motive Scenarios ~ What is the basic description of a mixed-motive scenario? Essentially it occurs when illegal and legitimate factors are used in making an employment decision.

24. Key Issues? Mixed-Motive Scenario (cont.) 1) What standard must the defense meet to establish that it used a legal factor? Preponderance of evidence vs. clear and convincing evidence __________________________________________________________________ Preponderance Clear and convincing Beyond a reasonable doubt 2) Does the illegal reason have to be a motivating factor or a substantial factor? 3) What evidence must be presented by the plaintiff, direct, indirect or either?

25. Ann Hopkins, a senior manager, was passed over for promotion to partner in two successive years – She proved that several partners (decision makers) made stereotypical sex-based derogatory remarks (e.g., her poor interpersonal skills could be “corrected by a soft-hued suit or new shade of lipstick,” she was “macho,” and she had been “overcompensated for being a woman”) Defence countered with proof that Hopkins was brash and abrasive and her contrary behaviour was the reason why she was not promoted (legal reasons) Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins

26. Lower courts ruled for Hopkins Agreement: “Clear and convincing” evidence was the proper defence standard An illegal motive (e.g., sex) must be a motivating factor in the decision - Disagreement on employer liability: -District court: Liability exists regardless if use of a legal motive is proven -Court of Appeals (DC circuit): Defendant is NOT liable if legal motive is proven Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins (cont.)

27. Supreme Court decision: Proper defense standard for proving a legal motive is a “ preponderance of evidence ” (not “clear and convincing evidence” used by lower courts) Disagreement on whether an illegal motive (e.g., sex) must be a motivating factor or a substantial factor O’Conner stated that proof of an illegal must be in the form of direct evidence (used by subsequent lower courts even though she was alone on the Court in this belief) “… What is required is what Ann Hopkins showed here : direct evidence that decision makers placed substantial negative reliance on an illegitimate criterion in reaching their decision.” Note: Even though O’Conner was alone in requiring direct evidence, the majority of lower courts used this standard in mixed-motive cases

28. ~ Civil Rights Act of 1991 ~ (m) Impermissible consideration of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment practices. Except as otherwise provided in this subchapter, an unlawful employment practice is established when the complaining party demonstrates that race, color, religion, sex, or national origin was a motivating factor for any employment practice, even though other factors also motivated the practice.

29. Costa was fired after getting into a fight with a male coworker  Costa provided indirect evidence that she was treated more harshly than her male coworker that she fought with, as well as other coworkers  The company said that she was terminated for being a repeat offender (and that the male she fought with was not)  Costa provided evidence of other men were treated less severely for offenses (e.g., being late, cursing) and had witnesses testify that she was targeted for intense stalking Desert Palace Inc., v Costa

30.  The District Court gave the jury the following mixed-motive instruction to the jury: “ You have heard evidence that the defendant’s treatment of the plaintiff was motivated by the plaintiff’s sex and also by other lawful reasons. If you find that the plaintiff’s sex was a motivating factor in the defendant’s treatment of the plaintiff, the plaintiff is entitled to your verdict, even if you find that the defendant’s conduct was also motivated by a lawful reason …. However, if you find that the defendant’s treatment of the plaintiff was motivated by both gender and lawful reasons, you must decide whether the plaintiff is entitled to damages. The plaintiff is entitled to damages unless the defendant proves by a preponderance of evidence that the defendant would have treated plaintiff similarly even if the plaintiff’s gender had played no role in the employment decision. Desert Palace Inc., v Costa (cont.)  The company contended that the Costa failed to provide “direct evidence” that sex was a motivating factor in her dismissal

31. Supreme Court ruled in Costa that direct evidence is not required for mixed-motive cases “In order to obtain a [mixed-motive] instruction … a plaintiff need only present sufficient evidence for a reasonable jury to conclude, by a preponderance of the evidence, that “race, color, religion, sex, or national origin was a motivating factor for any employment practice.” Note : Role of derogatory remarks: Most damaging if made by a decision-maker and in close temporal proximity to a negative employment decision Desert Palace Inc., v Costa (cont.)

32. Phase 1: Proof by a preponderance of direct or indirect evidence that an illegal motive was a motivating factor in an employment decision Phase 2: Proof by a preponderance of evidence that the employment decision made would have been made anyway in spite of the illegal motive Phase 3: Proof by a preponderance of evidence that the reasons (evidence) offered by the defence are a pretext for discrimination Mixed-Motive Scenario

33. ~ Pattern or Practice Discrimination ~

34. [Subset of Disparate Treatment Discrimination] From Title VII --- Section 707(a) Whenever the Attorney General has reasonable cause to believe that any person or group of persons is engaged in a pattern or practice of resistance to the full enjoyment of any of the rights secured by this subchapter, and that the pattern or practice is of such a nature and is intended to deny the full exercise of the rights herein described, the Attorney General may bring a civil action in the appropriate district court of the United State

35. Phase 3 : Plaintiff’s requirement for showing pretext is the same as previously discussed for McDonnell–Burdine cases for both the overall and individuals claims The Pattern or Practice Scenario Phase 1 : Plaintiff provides statistical evidence of underrepresentation of minorities/women in the workforce or overrepresentation of minorities/women in less desirable jobs Phase 2: Defendant can use McDonnell–Burdine defense for pattern statistics; defense for individual claims generally follows McDonnell–Burdine rules

36. The federal government sued a nationwide trucking company and its union for discrimination against black and Hispanic Americans in hiring intercity truck drivers. The government claimed that these minorities were relegated to lower- paying driving jobs by the existence of separate units (local unions) for intercity and local drivers. Protection from layoff and competition for vacancies were determined by bargaining union seniority, so that intercity runs were given to the applicant who had been an intercity driver the longest. To support its argument, the government presented the following statistics on the company work force: White Black & Hispanic ____________________________________________________ Intercity drivers 1802 13 Local drivers 1117 167 _____________________________________________________ Also, the government introduced population statistics that showed further disparities. For instance, some company terminals in areas of substantial black population had no black intercity drivers. Teamsters v. United States (1977)

37. Teamsters --- Representation statistics as evidence of a prima facie case Statistics showing racial or ethnic imbalance are probative in a case such as this one only because such imbalance is often a telltale sign of purposeful discrimination; absent explanation, it is ordinarily to be expected that nondiscriminatory hiring practices will in time result in a work force more or less representative of the racial and ethnic composition of the population in the community from which employees are hired. Evidence of long lasting and gross disparity between the composition of a work force and that of the general population thus may be significant even though 703 (j) makes clear that Title VII imposes no requirement that a work force mirror the general population." From Title VII ---703 (j) Nothing contained in this subchapter shall be interpreted to require any employer, employment agency, labor organization, or joint labor– management committee subject to this subchapter to grant preferential treatment to any individual or to any group because of the race, color, religion, sex, or national origin of such individual or group on account of an imbalance which may exist with respect to the total number or percentage of persons of any race, color, religion, sex, or national origin employed by any employer, referred or classified for employment by any employment agency or labor organization, admitted to membership or classified by any labor organization, or admitted to, or employed in, any apprenticeship or other training program, in comparison with the total number or percentage of persons of such race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in any community, State, section, or other area, or in the available work force in any community, State, section, or other area.

38. "At best, these attacks go only to the accuracy of the comparison between the composition of the company's work force at various terminals and the general population of the surrounding communities. They detract little from the Government's further showing that Negroes and Spanish-surnamed Americans who were hired were overwhelmingly excluded from line-driver jobs. Such employees were willing to work, had access to the terminal, were healthy and of working age, and often were at least sufficiently qualified to hold city-driver jobs. Yet they became line drivers with far less frequency than whites.... Of 2,919 whites who held driving jobs in 1971, 1,802 (62%) were line drivers and 1,117 (38%) were city drivers; of 180 Negroes and Spanish-surnamed Americans who held driving jobs, 13 (7%) were line drivers and 167 (93%) were city drivers. In any event, fine tuning of the statistics could not have obscured the glaring absence of minority line drivers. As the Court of Appeals remarked, the company's inability to rebut the inference of discrimination came not from a misuse of statistics but from "the inexorable zero." In cases where the differences are vast, technical issues regarding statistical analyses/comparisons may be irrelevant Teamsters [Degree of disparity between workforce & population statistics] >>> Company failed to articulate a legitimate reason for the disparities

39. Hazelwood v. United States (1977) Summary of the statistics used in Hazelwood Total teachers hired by the district......................... 1231 Total # of teachers hired since 3/24/72................. 405 % of Black teachers hired by the district............... 1.8% % Blacks hired since 3/24/72.............................. 3.7% % Black teachers living in metropolitan area........ 15.4% (surrounding county; % the gov't thought was appropriate) % Black teachers in area living outside center city.. 5.7% (local area; % that Hazelwood thought was appropriate) % Black pupils enrolled in school district.............. 2.3% >>> Hazelwood won since the S.C. decided that they had articulated a legitimate reason for the imbalance (e.g., competition from the City of St. Louis) when the “proper” relevant labor market was used

40. Wal-Mart v. Dukes (2011) >>> Plaintiffs alleged system-wide sex discrimination regarding pay and promotion decisions at Wal-Mart Plaintiff’s Evidence: 1)Study on the culture at Wal-Mart (ripe for gender discrimination) Senior management often refer to female associates as “little Janie Qs. One manager told an employee that “men are here to make a career and women aren’t.” A committee of female Wal-Mart executives concluded that “stereotypes limit the opportunities offered to women.” Wal-Mart permits those prejudices to infect personnel decisions, by leaving pay and promotions in the hands of “a nearly all male managerial workforce” using “arbitrary and subjective criteria.”

41. 2)Statistics: Women fill 70 percent of the hourly jobs in the retailer’s stores but make up only “33 percent of management employees The higher the organizational level, the lower the percentage of women Women working in the company’s stores “are paid less than men in every region” and “that the salary gap widens over time even for men and women hired into the same jobs at the same time. Wal-Mart v. Dukes (2011)

42. Rule 23. Class Actions (a) Prerequisites. One or more members of a class may sue or be sued as representative parties on behalf of all members only if: (1)the class is so numerous that joinder of all members is impracticable, (1)there are questions of law or fact common to the class, (3) the claims or defenses of the representative parties are typical of the claims or defenses of the class; and (4) the representative parties will fairly and adequately protect the interests of the class.

43. (b) Types of Class Actions. A class action may be maintained if Rule 23(a) is satisfied and if: (1)prosecuting separate actions by or against individual class members would create a risk of: (A) inconsistent or varying adjudications with respect to individual class members that would establish incompatible standards of conduct for the party opposing the class; or (B) adjudications with respect to individual class members that, as a practical matter, would be dispositive of the interests of the other members not parties to the individual adjudications or would substantially impair or impede their ability to protect their interests; *(2) the party opposing the class has acted or refused to act on grounds that apply generally to the class, so that final injunctive relief or corresponding declaratory relief is appropriate respecting the class as a whole; or [Note: This pertains to claims for injunctive or declarative relief; permits a purely statistical analysis for the merits of plaintiff’s class action claims]for injunctive or declarative relief *(3) the court finds that the questions of law or fact common to class members predominate over any questions affecting only individual members, and that a class action is superior to other available methods for fairly and efficiently adjudicating the controversy. The matters pertinent to these findings include: [Note: This pertains to claims for monetary relief] (A) the class members' interests in individually controlling the prosecution or defense of separate actions; (B) the extent and nature of any litigation concerning the controversy already begun by or against class members; (C) the desirability or undesirability of concentrating the litigation of the claims in the particular forum; and (D) the likely difficulties in managing a class action.

44. Injunctive Relief : A court-ordered act or prohibition against an act or condition which has been requested; not a judgment for money Declaratory Relief : A judgment of a court which determines the rights of parties without ordering anything be done or awarding damages. The party making the request seeks an official declaration of the status of a matter in controversy. Definitions

45. Wal-Mart v. Dukes (2011) District Court: Approved class certification based on Rule 23 (a) and on Rule 23 (b) (2) On appeal (to CA 9), Wal-Mart argued that the district court made 3 errors: 1) No proof of commonality and typicality – Rule 23(a) 2) Using 23(b) (2) eliminated their opportunity to respond to individual claims 3) Rule 23 (b) (2) should not have been used since claims for monetary relief predominated over injunctive and declarative relief Court of Appeals (CA 9): Three judge panel denied the appeal as did an en banc ruling (6-5) Majority upheld claims for injunctive, declarative relief, and back pay under Rule 23(b) (2) but sent back to the lower court to determine if punitive damages are appropriate using Rule 23(b) (3)

46. Wal-Mart v. Dukes (2011) Supreme Court Decision: Majority failed to certify plaintiffs as a class. Commonality was not satisfied – Rule 23(a)(2) Unanimous that Rule 23(b) (2) was inappropriate to use; monetary claims far predominated over injunctive and declarative relief Dissent: “Rule 23(a)(2) establishes a preliminary requirement for maintaining a class action: “[T]here are questions of law or fact common to the class.” The Rule “ does not require that all questions of law or fact raised in the litigation be common,” indeed, “[e]ven a single question of law or fact common to the members of the class will satisfy the commonality requirement,” Believed the Court mistakenly used Rule 23(b)(3) criteria into the commonality inquiry of Rule 23(a). Case should be sent back to lower court to determine if class certification is possible using rule Rule 23(b) (3)

47. Wal-Mart v. Dukes --- Update News on Wal-Mart v. Dukes (deadlines for suits)deadlines for suits Role of the OFCCP on pay discrimination? Secretary of Labor Hilda L. Solis in her address to the 22nd convention of the National Employment Lawyers Association (NELA) on July 1, 2011: Here's an important point: The Supreme Court's Wal-Mart ruling was limited to class actions under Rule 23 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. But my department's efforts to eliminate workplace discrimination in America don't depend on this rule. …. We enforce an executive order that says federal contractors can't discriminate. We have oversight over any company doing at least $10,000 of government business a year. This means that Pat's office can obtain class-wide relief for victims of pay discrimination without having to file a class action lawsuit. … The Wal-Mart decision won't affect our ability to address pay disparities on a broad scale — even if our lawyers have to tweak some of their legal arguments based on the reasoning used in that case. Also, emphasized DOL’s commitment to seek remedies for pay discrimination against women and minorities and promised to increase the percentage of pay investigation from 14% in the preceding year to 20 to 40% going forward.

48. Other comments by the Secretary of Labor: Obama administration remains committed to the Paycheck Fairness Act (failed by two votes in Congress last year.) Promised to: Close loopholes that give employers unjustified defenses to discrimination Strengthen the ban on retaliation against those who complain about unequal pay Rescind Bush-era guidelines preventing effective enforcement of equal pay laws Create more flexible workplaces so women don't have to choose between motherhood and a fulfilling care Enforce a new provision in the Affordable Care Act that guarantees break time for nursing mothers.

49. Basic factors for evidence of pattern or practice discrimination Impact on actual applicants (“Flow” statistics) Impact on potential applicants Representation regarding a company’s workforce (“Stock” statistics). Most commonly used comparison in EEO cases Basically, this is a comparison between 2 numbers (often percentages) % reflective of the company’s work force versus % indicative of the relevant population or labor force  Or cross-job comparisons (e.g., between 2 jobs) within an organization

50. What determines the number to be used indicating the labor market? What geographical area is to be used? (e.g., a city, region, entire nation) Who is counted in the geographical area? (e.g., everyone in the population, only those with certain qualifications) Who is counted within the company? Full-time workers only or do part-time employees get counted? Employees in all job classes, a categorization of certain job classes, or only one job class? Employees in just one department, the entire facility, or facilities across the nation? Some Key Issues/Questions

51. Qualification requirement : When special qualifications are required to fill particular jobs, comparisons to the general population (rather than to the smaller group of individuals who possess the necessary qualifications) may have little probative value (from Hazelwood v. U.S.) Relevant Labor Market (cont):