1. Substitutes for Leadership Based on work by S. Kerr and J.M. Jermier, “Substitutes for Leadership: Their Meaning and Measurement”, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 22 (1978): 375-403 Note: The following are either neutralizers or substitutes for leadership

2. Follower Characteristics Experience and training (s) Professionalism (s) Lack of value for goals (n)

3. Task Characteristics Unambiguous tasks (s) Direct feedback from task (s) Challenging task (s)

4. Organizational Characteristics Cohesive teams (s) Leader’s lack of power (n) Standardization and formalization (s) Organizational rigidity (n) Physical distance between leader and follower (n)