1. By Tanya Maria Golash-Boza

2.  Comparisons of different countries’ racial histories and contemporary racial contexts show how different ideas predominate relating to race  This presentation will highlight the differences using charts as comparisons.

3. FranceBrazilSouth AfricaU.S. Was a colonizing power with colonial subjects that became immigrants to France. The French had colonies in the Caribbean, Asia, Northern Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa. Ideology was to “better” the colonial subjects. Colonized by Europeans; laws and customs negatively impacted African- descended people Colonization by Europeans and colonization shaped apartheid Colonized by Europeans and in the formation of the country freedom only for white men

4. “In each of these countries, people of African descent are the most likely to occupy the lowest rungs of the socioeconomic ladder.” (p. 420) FranceSouth AfricaBrazilU.S. African- descended persons are numerically the minority. African- descended persons are numerically the majority. African- descended persons are equal in the numbers of European descended persons. African- descended persons are numerically the minority.

5. FranceSouth AfricaBrazilU.S. Color-blind in name only; allowing citizenship of members of former colonies, but social and economic marginalization of people of color and does not collect census data of race and ethnicity History of Apartheid or legally enforced racial segregation and now a “rainbow nation” Celebrated racial mixture and racial democracy; now college entrance quotas for people of color Unlike France, the United States uses hyphenated identities and collects data on racial self- identification; racial disparities continue

6. FranceSouth AfricaBrazilU.S. Institutional racism not recognized and official rhetoric of equality Entrenched practices not laws; legacy of apartheid and a sense that people vie for resources based on race Blacks hold the past responsible for racism or ignorance; institutional racism is not utilized as an explanation for racism Official rhetoric of equal opportunity while particular groups recognize institutional racism and interpersonal racism

7. U.S.BrazilFranceSouth Africa Are there Blacks in the middle class? YesYes, due to race and class educational quotas NoYes Are Blacks in elected or appointed government positions? YesA fewRarely, just in government with a glass ceiling Yes

8. There are four provinces and ten rural homelands. Many blacks live in the homelands; although the homelands are only 13 percent of the space in South Africa. Relatives leave to find jobs and send money home. This is a high poverty area. Dutch settlers and the British fought over parts of South Africa and unified as a state in 1910, especially when gold and diamonds were found. In the 1980s activism increased against apartheid. After apartheid, inequalities and segregation in living space and in schools continued, even without laws to reinforce it. About 17 percent of adults age 15–49 are HIV positive (mainly women). White youth continue to hold certain judgmental ideas of black youth. (p. 429-430)

9. Brazil holds the idea that for citizens “We are all Brazilians.” Historically, the Portuguese colonized in 1500 and forced the Indigenous people into labor on sugarcane plantations and also brought in black slaves. The mixed race population grew. There was a whitening policy through immigration and intermarriage. Certain attitudes focused on “racial mixture as Brazil’s hope for the future.” This was an ideal that focused on the mestizo—the person who was a mixture of black, white, Indian—because they were considered best for the tropical climate. (pp. 433-439 )

10.  The U.S. does not use the language of becoming or claiming to be a racial democracy, but this is the prevalent language in Brazil.  However, the idea of racial democracy was predicated on a whitening theory that a whitened nation was a superior nation and a mixing of people of color was necessary to get to that whitening.  In everyday life the myth of racial democracy was and is negated by great inequalities. In the early 2000s Brazil used affirmative action with quotas so that 40 percent of university seats would be filled with Afro-Brazilians and Indigenous peoples. However, affirmative action is not used in employment. There is more public opinion that approves of affirmative action in Brazil than in the United States.

11.  These three countries differ in terms of racial dynamics, but underneath all of these countries are racial inequalities.  This reinforces the idea that it is important to trace the development of racism historically and in terms of specific places.  Comparison of global ideas of race and the forms racism takes is vital to getting a more complete picture of the social construction of race